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HISTORY BULLETIN
OF THE
FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL
KIRKSVILLE, MO.

1912

M.L.



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WORKING CALENDAR
1912-1913

Classification of Students.................Tues., Sept. 10
Class Work Begins.............................Wed., Sept. 11
Fall Quarter Ends.............................Wed., Nov. 27
Winter Quarter Begins.........................Mon., Dec. 2
Adjournment, Winter Vacation, 3:00 p. m......Fri., Dec. 20
Session Resumes...............................Mon., Jan. 6
Winter Quarter Ends...........................Fri., Feb. 28
Spring Quarter Begins.........................Tues., Mar. 4
Baccalaureate Sermon..........................Sun., May 18
Graduating Exercises..........................Tues., May 20
Summer Quarter, Program Making................Tues., May 27
Summer Quarter, Class Work Begins.............Wed., May 28
Summer Quarter Closes.........................Fri., Aug. 8



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HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

BULLETIN

OF THE

First District Normal School

KIRKSVILLE, MISSOURI

Provided for by Act Approved March 19, 1870

Located at Kirksville, Mo., December 29, 1870

Opened as First District Normal School Jan. 1, 1871

SEPTEMBER 1912

VOLUME XIII NUMBER 2

PUBLISHED BY THE FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL.

ISSUED QUARTERLY JUNE SEPTEMBER, DECEMBER, MARCH

Entered June 25, 1902, at Kirksville, Mo., as second class matter, under act of Congress of July, 1894.



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PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEW OF BUILDINGS

ORIGINAL BUILDING, BALDWIN HALL, IN CENTER, COMPLETED IN JANUARY, 1873.

LIBRARY HALL AT LEFT, COMPLETED IN DECEMBER, 1901. SCIENCE HALL AT RIGHT, COMPLETED IN MAY, 1906.

MODEL RURAL SCHOOL, MANUAL ARTS HALL, AND SCHOOL GARDENS AT THE REAR AND NOT SHOWN IN PICTURE.



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Division of History and Government

JOHN R. KIRK,

President

E. M. Violette,

Professor of European History and Chairman of the Division

EUGENE FAIR,

Professor of American History and Government

A. Otterson,

Professor of Civics

J. L. Kingsbury,

Professor of Ancient History



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Contents

PAGE

1. The Place of History in the Education of Teachers...5

2. History Courses in Elementary Schools...7

3. Egyptian Agriculture: A Study adapted for Use in the Fifth Grade...12

4. The Teaching of Oriental History...26

5. The Teaching of Medieval History in the High School...29

6. American History during the Last Twenty-Five Years...33

7. The Use of Source Material...36

8. Setting the Problem...51

9. McClelland s Pennisular Campaign as Revealed by the Sources...57

10. The Equipment of the Division of History and Government...61

11. Courses in History and Government...64

12. Courses in Art History and Art Appreciation...65



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THE PLACE OF HISTORY IN THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS.

This institution recognizes the special value of historical study in the preparation of teachers and hence requires at least one unit of history and two thirds of a unit of civil government, both of high school rank, for the rural and the elementary certificates, and at least one unit of history of college rank for the diploma. Many students take more than the minimum requirements for the certificates and the diploma. It is believed that all teachers, it matters not what subjects they may be called on to teach, will be better equipped as teachers and as citizens in the communities in which they teach if they have taken advantage of their opportunities while in school and have pursued more than the minimum requirements in history. The study of history broadens their view of things and enables them to appreciate more fully the social conditions of the present. This is especially true in these latter days when the field of history has been widened until it is no longer confined to the accounts of rulers and their petty wars and jealousies but is coming more and more to deal with man in all of his social relations. History is not only becoming more and more interesting because of this widening of its scope but it is getting to be more utilitarian. The new history that is now being brought forth seeks not only, to make its students see things as they were but also to see things as they came to be what they were or what they are now. The idea of development and growth is ever before the mind of the history student of today, and he is not satisfied until he has followed the evolutionary processes he finds at work in human society from their beginnings to the present. Historical study is no longer a study of the past merely, but of the past in its relation to the present. To study things as they were 50, 100, or 5000 years ago is interesting enough as an antiquarian pursuit, but to study the past and relate it to the present is to put a new motive in the work that makes it more vital and valuable. It is for this reason, if for no other, that the teacher, it matters not what his work or rank may be, should know something of history, and the more the better. If historical study enables one to properly appreciate present conditions in their

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true relations, he is better equipped to be more effective in his his influence upon his pupils and the community where he lives.

To this end it is held that the prospective teacher should as a rule first secure a general knowledge of the entire field of history, and then put as much time as he can spare upon the special fields. This institution offers two beginning courses in history and one in civil government that are of high school rank, and eight courses of history and government that are of college rank. Those who do not expect to become specialists in history would do well to take at least all the courses of high school rank. To take the course in American History without the course in European history, or vice versa, would be detrimental, especially if later only the minimum of college history is to be taken. If conditions as they are in this country, to say nothing of the world beyond our borders, are to be understood, the history of the ancient medieval, and modern times in Europe and England must be pursued as well as the history of our own country. Prospective teachers are therefore advised to make sure of covering the whole field of history in some manner before completing their preparation.

E. M. V.

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HISTORY COURSES IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

The condition of history teaching in the high schools of Missouri is by no means ideal as yet, but it is vastly better than in the elementary schools. A questionnaire conducted about two years ago by the Missouri Society of Teachers of History and Government concerning history in Missouri High Schools, showed that in practically all four year high schools outside of St. Louis the courses in history follow the plans and suggestions made by the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association in its report in 1908. It also showed that in the three and the two year high schools as much of the committee s plans as is possible is followed. That means that in practically every high school in the state of two years or more outside of St. Louis, there are at least as many years of history given as there are years in the course. The order of these courses is most generally Ancient History, Medieval and Modern History, English History, and American History.

But on turning to the elementary grades we find a state of affairs that in most instances is deplorable. History is to be sure taught in every graded school and in practically every rural school. But with the exception of a few of the better town schools the only form of history that is taught is American History. That no other form of history is taught is bad enough but the situation is made all the more deplorable by the fact that in many of the schools perhaps it would be perfectly safe to say in the vast majority of the schools in both the country and town the course in history is given not merely in one grade but is repeated in two or three grades. In many schools American history is given the pupils in the sixth grade; when they come to the seventh grade it is given them again; and when they come to the eighth grade it is repeated a third time. Notwithstanding the fact that an attempt is often made to make the work of the higher grade more advanced than that of the lower grade, the general testimony of the pupils who have gone through this mill is that the life is taken out of the subject and they come away frequently with a pronounced dislike for history.

For this unfortunate condition the teacher is not altogether responsible. He frequently finds his hands tied when he would

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do things differently, and he is compelled to do what is prescribed for him by higher authorities. Moreover, when the more wide awake teacher or superintendent has been given the opportunity to better matters along the line of history teaching by way, for example, of introducing other forms of history into the grades, they have had their ambitions thwarted by the lack of adequate textbooks or outlines of work. Under either of these conditions there are extenuating circumstances. But the time has arrived when the plea of lack of adequate textbooks or outlines of history work for the grades in other fields than American history cannot be made. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate what there is now available in the way of this kind of material.

First of all, attention is called to the Report of the Committee of Eight of the American Historical Association which was published in 1910. This committee was appointed in 1906 to make out a program in history for the elementary school and consider other closely allied topics, and in order that its work might be as practicable as possible, this committee was made up largely of superintendents and normal school professors. Only two college professors were members. It made its report after considerable labor and very extensive observation and consultation with elementary history teachers and superintendents throughout the country. The report has been published by Scribners and costs only fifty cents.

This report ought to be in the hand of every superintendent, principal, and teacher of history in the grades. Not that it offers a perfect scheme of history study in the grades   the committee makes no claim to perfection but instead admits that its work is subject to improvement but it is full of helpful suggestions as to what kind of history may be pursued in all the grades from the first to eighth, and also something as how it should be taught.

It is not the intention to set forth here any elaborate outline of the committee s suggestions or plans, but something should be said as to the general character of the scheme and particularly as to that which gives it distinction.

Fundamentally the plan of the course of study as outlined by the committee is based on the proposition that "history teaching in elementary schools should be focused around American

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History." But that does not mean that American History requires an account of things that have occurred in America and nothing more. Instead the aim has been to explain the America of today, its civilization, its institutions, and its traditions," and that involves taking into account the history of its peoples before they crossed the Atlantic and settled here. How that is to be done may be shown in the following brief statement of what is recommended for the several grades.

In the first and second grades where practically all the work proceeds by way of storytelling by the teacher, the topics considered are connected with primitive Indian life and our own public holidays. The treatment of the topics is a little different in the second grade from what it is in the first grade. By means of this work "an historical background is thus given that supplies the teacher with abundance of material for making these vital points permanent in the child s life."

In the third grade the problem is a little different from what it is in the first and second grades. By this time the child is able to read understandingly and he is therefore asked to read first simple stories of heroes of other lands and times than his own. But public holidays still receive the greatest consideration from the teacher. But in the fourth and fifth grades less attention is given to public holidays than in the earlier grades, and something in the way of biographical studies and descriptions of life, manners, and customs of the early colonists is made.

On coming to the sixth grade we reach what constitutes the most distinctive feature of the committee s report. Here "those features of ancient and medieval life which explain either important elements of our civilization or which show how the movement for discovery or colonization originated," are dealt with. There is no intention "that groups of topics should be taught as organized history." "Pupils in this grade are not prepared to study scientific history in its logical and orderly development. But they are prepared to receive more or less definite impressions that may be conveyed to them by means of pictures, descriptions, and illustrated stories arranged in chronological sequence. In receiving such, impressions they will not understand the full meaning of the past events touched upon, but they will catch

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something of the spirit and purpose of the Greeks and Romans and other types of social life. 

In the seventh grade the work is arranged so that the settlement and growth of the colonies in America should be taken up, the voyages of discovery and the earliest attempt at colonization having been dealt with at the close of the study in the sixth grade. The eighth grade work begins where the seventh left off   that is at the close of the American Revoltuion   and comes down to the present.

In neither the seventh nor eighth grades "is it intended that much attention should be given to affairs in Europe or South America, but the aim is to bring more into view than has been customary the broad sweep of revolutionary movement and also show near the close of the eighth grade enough of the reconstruction of modern Europe to enable the pupil to gain some comprehension of what England, France, Germany, and Italy have become through the last fifty years."

But the Committee of Eight is not alone in this effort to improve history teaching in the elementary schools. In fact its plan is far from being the first that has been put forth. At least two plans that antedate the committee s plan, may be considered here. One of them is Professor Lucy M. Salmon s outline of a six year course of study for the grades from third to eighth inclusive. This outline was published as a part of the Report of the Committee of Seven on History in Secondary Schools. This report was published by Macmillan and Co., and costs fifty cents. In this plan biographies of great men are to be presented in the third and fourth grades, and elementary Ancient History, Medieval and Modem History, English History and American History are to follow in the succeeding grades. The other plan is that of Professor Ellwood Kemp. It is published by Ginn & Co., under the title of "Outline of History for the Grades," and is to accompany the author s text book entitled "History for Grades and District Schools." Both are published by the Ginn & Co. Kemp s plan provides for the presentation of primitive life in the first grade; Oriental history in the second; Greek history in the third; Roman history in the fourth; medieval history in the fifth and sixth; and American history in the seventh and eighth. Concerning this plan this much may be said; in the grades below

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the seventh there is too much of formal history. The references given in connection with the work of each grade cannot possibly be intended for the pupils at all in at least the first five or six grades. Even most of the references given for the seventh and eighth grades are not suitable for them.

But since the report of the Committee of Eight has come out, Professor Bliss of the San Diego, (Calif.) Normal School has published through the American Book Company a book on History in Elementary Schools. ($1.50). He claims for. the course outlined in his book that it is first of all practicable; that it has been subjected to the test of teachers and supervisors in elementary schools throughout the country, and of Normal Schools; that it is the result of years of experience in public schools conducted under ordinary conditions; and that it is easily adaptable to either graded or ungraded schools.

In the primary grades the general theme is primitive civilization. In the first grade the Tree Dwellers, the Cave Dwellers, the Cliff Dwellers, the Lake Dwellers, and primitive life among the North American Indians are considered. In the second grade the stories that are told the pupils relate more specially to certain historical peoples while in their primitive conditions, such as Egyptians, Phoenicians and others like them. In the third grade stories of Persians, Greeks and Romans, of the beginnings of Teutonic civilization, of American Indians and Spanish Pioneers in the South West, of English Colonial Life in America, are introduced; and in the fourth grade there is taken up a continuation of the stories pursued in the third grade.

The general theme of the fifth and sixth grades is the development of the civilization during the medieval and early modern periods. The aims are to give the children an outlook on the fields of European history; to make them familiar with the names and incidents that have become part of the common stock of intelligent people; and to furnish them in some manner with the background for the formal study of American history which is taken up in the eighth grade.

The seventh and eighth grades are devoted to American history with considerable attention to European setting and to contemporaneous European events.

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Bliss s plan, has more elaborately arranged lists of references to books than the report of the Committee of Eight.

Any attempt to follow the course of study as arranged by the Committee of Eight or by Professor Bliss requires a new order of textbooks, especially for the sixth grade of the committee s plan and for the fifth and sixth grades of Bliss s plan. Already the need created by the report of the committee in this respect is being met by the various publishing companies. The following texts suitable for the sixth grade have been published: Harding, Story of Europe, Scott, Foresman & Co., $.60; Gordy, American Beginnings in Europe, Scribners, $1.00; Atkinson, European Beginnings of American History, Ginn & Co., $1.00; Bourne & Benton, Introduction to American History, Heath & Co. Others are to come out in the near future, among which is Nida, European Foundations of American History, Macmillan, which is announced as forth coming very shortly.

No single plan that has been submitted will likely commend itself to everybody as one that should be universally adopted. In fact every wide awake teacher will find it desirable to modify any plan, no matter how excellent, according to local conditions and to his opportunities. Nothing that has been said in this article is to be construed as an endorsement of all the details of any plan that has been discussed. The aim of the writer has been to call attention to what has recently been done towards making improvements in history teaching in the grades, with the sincere hope that there may be an increase of interest on the part of Missouri teachers and superintendents in the plans and suggestions that have been made by the Committee of Eight and such; men as Professor Bliss.

E.M.V.

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EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE   A STUDY ADAPTED FOR USE IN THE FIFTH GRADE.

NOTE   The following description with the illustrations was used by fifth grade pupils. I is a concrete case of the study of the life of a great people. The illustrations were worked out from negatives of lantern slides made in this school. It is of very great advantage to the history teacher to know how to make lantern slides. Through the cooperation of Professor Burrows, many students in history classes learn how to make lantern slides. The making of lantern slides in connection with the history work is not just a fad in this school. We know what we are doing and why we do it. It is not done for purposes of mere entertainment or spectacular display. It is done with the serious intention of understanding more clearly what men did in the past. It is believed the illustrations given below really illustrate, else they would not be given.

Can you think why Egypt, though very small, did so many more useful things than most countries larger than she? It is because the soil will grow so many of the things which man wants, and do it year in and year out without much care on the part of man. In our country we must not grow the same crops on the same field every year else the land gets poor. The Egyptian did not have to be so careful because the river plastered the land with mud each year. The Egyptian was also surer of enough water than we are. But the Nile when it overflowed did not reach all the valley, so man had to get the water to these dry spots. He did not carry the water in buckets, but used a shaduf. This was something like our old well sweeps. (See page 14.)

Just after the Nile had gone back into its banks was a very busy time for the farmer. The first thing he must do was to plough the land. You will surely want to know what the Egyptian plough looked like. It was made up of a long wooden share into which was fastened two bent handles. A long pole was tied on to the back part of the share. At the other end of this pole and across it was fastened another pole. This last pole

PLOWING HOEING, AND SOWING UNDER THE OLD KINGDOM. (Erman p. 127)

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Modern Shaduf (Erman, p. 426.)

ANCIENT SHADUF (WIKLINSON, VOL. II p. 4.)

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FIG 1. BREAKS THE CLODS AFTER THE PLOW HAS PASSED.

FIG. 2. HOLDS THE PLOW.

Fig. 3. THE DRIVER.

FIG. 4. A BARREL, PROBABLY CONTAINING SEED.

FIGS 5. and 6. Two EGYPTIANS TALKING (Wilkinson, Vol II. p. 13.)

was tied to the horns of the oxen which pulled the plow. This kind of a plow was used by the Egyptians for hundreds of years. It took two men and two oxen to one plow. One man drove the oxen, and the other held the plow in the ground.

The Egyptians have left us pictures in which the driver is saying to the plowman, "Press the plow down, press it down with thy hand." The same driver yells to his oxen, "Pull hard!" and when they are to turn at the end of the field, "Be around!" Usually there were two plows run together, one behind the other.

The Egyptian did not plow deep at all. Before the ground was seeded the big clods had to be broken up. For long, long

WOODEN HOES. (Wilkinson, Vol. II., p. 16.)

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FIG. 4. GOATS TREADING IN THE GRAIN WHEN SOWN, IN THE FIELD AFTER THE NILE HAS GONE DOWN. 6 is SPRINKLING THE SEED FROM THE BASKET HE HOLDS IN HIS LEFT HAND, THE OTHERS ARE DRIVING THE GOATS OVER THE GROUND. (Wilkinson, Vol. I, p. 12).

years this was done with a wooden hoe. Some of their hoes have been found and you may see a picture of them.

Of course the time to use the hoe was while the plowing was being done. The hoe seems to have been used more than any other tool on the farm. It may be that some ground was not plowed at all but just hoed up.

When the ground was all ready the seed was sown. It was scattered by hand and tramped in by sheep, and sometimes by other animals.

After the grain had ripened it was cut with a short sickle. It was cut high above the ground, so most of the straw was left standing. The harvest men talked as they worked, and boasted what good laborers they were.

CUTTING WHEAT AND PULLING UP DURRA. (Erman p. 435).

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PAPYRUS HARVEST, OLD KINGDOM. (Breasted, p. 97).

Sometimes the grain was bound together in shieves with ropes, sometimes it was put loosely in the basket or sack in which it was carried to the threshing floor.

PULLING up THE DURRA, BINDING IT INTO BUNDLES AND PULLING OFF THE HEADS. (Erman, p. 435).

ONE WAY OF CARRYING GRAIN. (Erman, p. 431.)

You will like to see the picture of a donkey carrying the grain to be threshed. The grain was thrown into a stack on the floor, and then trodden out by animals, usually donkeys.

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HARVEST SCENE (Wilkinson, Vol. II, p. 44).

After the grain was threshed it was collected into a round heap with a wooden fork. The women, then cleaned the grain of chaff and dirt by throwing it up quickly with two bent boards. Sieves were also used to clean the grain. Once the grain was clean, a little of it was sent to the man who owned the land for him to look at and some was given to Min, the God of Agriculture. Each heap of grain was measured by two men sent out by the owner of the land before it was taken to the granaries. These granaries were nearly all built in about the same way. A piece of ground was closed in by a sun dried brick wall and inside of this was made one or two rows of cone-shaped mud buildings. Each building was about sixteen feet high and six and one half feet broad. Each had also two small windows, one high up and the other half way up or near the ground. The sacks of grain were emptied into the higher window, and the grain taken out through the lower. This kind of a building kept out the mice. Sometimes other kinds of granaries were used which had flat roofs.

THRESHING WITH DONKEYS (Erman, p. 431.)

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Granary, Showing how the Grain was put in and the Doors Through Which it was Taken out. (Wilkinson, Vol I, p. 32.)

Model of a Granary. (Erman, p. 434.)

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MARKING CATTLE, WITH A HOT IRON. ONE MAN IS HEATING THE IRONS, TWO OTHERS ARE MARKING THE CATTLE AND ANOTHER IS KEEPING AWAY THE CALVES. (Wilkinson, Vol. I., p. 217.)

Now we have just been seeing how wheat was raised and taken care of. We think barley was handled in about the same way. Another kind of plant they harvested goes by the name of durra. This plant was more like our millet than anything else. This, they pulled up by the roots. We have pictures showing that this was done with a tool something like a comb.

We should like to know how the Egyptian of the long ago planted and took care of his onions, cucumbers, melons, and many other vegetables, but he has left us so little about this that we can not know. We can find out a good deal though about how he raised his cattle. The old Egyptian thought more of his cattle than any one of his other tame animals. He talked to and

HORNLESS CATTLE, DURING THE OLD KINGDOM. (Erman, p. 437.)

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Feeding an Ox (Erman, p. 438).

petted his cattle as we do our dogs. He thought that gods and goddesses came to him in the forms of bulls and cows. They had several kinds of cattle just as we do. The kind they thought the most of had long horns, and were usually pure white, although some were yellow or brown, while others were white, spotted with red or black.

They raised also short horned and hornless cattle. They tried to breed better cattle of each kind and get rid of the scrubs.

Milking a Cow. (Perrot and Chipiez, Vol. I., p. 39).

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Herdsman Out in the Country. (Erman, p. 440)

I know you would like to know how they fattened their cattle. Well, they made a dough much like our bread dough, then they pushed the dough into the mouth saying such things as "Eat there." They gave the fattening cattle water in great earthen vessels. Before telling you about the people who took care of the large herds of cattle, I know you would like to see how a cow was milked. (See page 21.)

For a long time at least a great deal of the Delta was not plowed up and it was used for pasturage in the summer. The men who took care of the cattle had no settled homes. We can see them in the evening when the day s work is done, squatting around a low hearth, roasting their geese on wooden spits, cooking dough for the cattle or planting papyrus seeds.

These herdsmen did not seem to like this life very well, for it was a happy day when they, "went out of the north country and drove their cattle upwards." We can see them in the pictures driving their cattle along, and sometimes swimming them through the water.

Arriving home with the cattle, the herdsmen must show to men, sent out by the owner of the animals, what they have returned.

Herd of Oxen Taken Through the Water. (Erman, p. 440).

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KEEPER OF THE ANIMALS ON A FARM TELLING THE MASTER HOW MANY HE HAS OF EACH KIND. THE KEEPER IS STANDING IN FRONT OF THE LONG HORNED CATTLE. (Wilkinson, Vol. II., p 179).

KEEPERS OF GEESE GIVING ACCOUNT OF THEM. (Erman, p. 442)

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MAN DRIVING HOGS DURING TIME OF THE EMPIRE. (Erman, p. 443)

Flocks of geese had to be accounted for in the same way. We should like to know how the Egyptian looked after his goats, sheep, donkeys and hogs, but he has left us so very few pictures of them. He surely did not think so very much of these animals.

Were you asked to tell what kind of tame birds our farmers thought the most of you would answer,  chickens.  But so far as we know the Egyptians did not have chickens. The tame bird he liked best was the goose. Geese were not only used for food, but also for pets. It seems that now and then even a married woman would have a goose for a pet.

From all we have said you will not think it odd that the Egyptian believed agriculture with cattle raising was the greatest work to be done, but it will seem odd to you that the men who did the work on the farms were looked down upon by those who owned the farms. These farm hands worked very hard, but were barely able to make a living. They were often beaten and thrown into prison. Still these laborers on the farms made up most of the people of Egypt. With all his sufferings the Egyptian laborer gave thanks many times each year, no doubt, for the Nile which brought him water and caused his plants to grow.

E. F.

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MAN, REPRESENTED AS THE NILE BRINGING VASES OF WATER AND FLOWERS.
(Erman, p. 425)

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THE TEACHING OF ORIENTAL HISTORY.

There is no one subject more neglected today in the college curriculum, than Ancient Oriental History. Hardly a writer of High School or College textbooks but what will say this subject is very important and should be emphasized from the standpoint of modern origins at least. Yet these same writers too often let the matter go, by making the statement of the importance, with no particular effort to prove the case.

Since there is not much denial as to the relative great importance of this subject it is fair to enquire why it is so neglected. There are several reasons, among which may be mentioned; the lack of definite information both on the part of writers and teachers; the unusable form in which much that we do know is placed; the constantly new material being found making, it difficult to keep up with what is known; the tendency on the part of some to make modern history stand by itself without very much reference to its past; the idea that the study of Ancient Oriental History will have a disturbing influence on old time beliefs and practices. These reasons are evident but the main reason is not very evident until one has talked with many people on this matter. The chief reason will then be found, on the part of the teacher, to be fear of getting into trouble. This statement, of course, is made on the assumption that the most fundamental reason for teaching Ancient Oriental History is to understand the religious history of the Hebrews in its bearing on subsequent religious history and especially on Modem Christianity. Religion may not still be "the key to history," but all will concede that it is one of the most important keys; yet in comparison with the political, economic and social keys it is rusty. But begin to polish and use this key and slumbering wonderings will waken to tense life and rooms will be opened up which were thought to contain only dogmas and bygone rituals. One of the most astounding yet oft made statements of writers of political, social and economic history is that a perfect morality and religion were taught some two thousand years ago. Great things were worked out then and previously, both in religion and morals, but are these things usually looked upon as having been worked out or are they usually looked upon as having sprung fully grown from the head of some imagined deity?

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The active open minded young person of today must see the  stone upon stone  development in every field of history or the sincerity, honesty and knowledge of the teacher and writer are bound to be questioned. This fear of the consequences of teaching that our religious ideas of today represent a long age development can be met and banished. The most welcome opponents that the teacher may have are the honest but extremely orthodox persons who really think that things are going to the bow-wows, because intrepretations of religious history different from their own are made. Such persons may create for the time a great deal of furore against the teachers, but if the latter is calm, honest, fearless and ready to listen' to all arguments, whatever may be the personal conviction involved, thought will be stimulated and many persons will take an interest in the school work who would not have otherwise done so; hence here will be a real example of exploiting history.

Probably no prejudices are so strong as the religious. In almost every community there are persons with sinister motives who know this and will undertake to uproot both the teacher and his work rather, for personal reasons than religious. To such persons the teacher must show that he has red blood in his veins and is willing to run risks and stand up to the fight like a man. Here then are some of the difficulties to be met and it is: not amiss to say these difficulties may be met and solved.

For a decade one third of the time and effort spent in the year s work in college Ancient History in this Normal School, has been given to Oriental History. Our experience and experiments have ended with no great regrets as to our attempts. Our greatest failure no doubt has been in not relating the work closely enough to the church life round about us all. It is safe to say that the fearless expression of ones  own opinion with proof for the same, both by teachers and students has been not only permitted but encouraged.

The onslaught of the ultra orthodox, the most extreme atheist and the middle of the roader have all been welcomed. They together usually have made very uneasy those persons who wished to fence and take no stand of any sort. This has been shown over and over again when students would say to the teacher

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  I would like to know what Miss So and So thinks about this matter since she has tried to tear to pieces what I have said. 

But the most encouraging developments that have come have been illustrated by such a question as this:  Is not such a belief or practice associated historically with such a belief or practice of today?  And the student usually thinks of himself too, as having intimately to do with this belief or practice. This means enthusiasm and determination to examine now the actions of individuals including self, with sympathetic regard to what has been and what may be. It means that the facts and effects of Ancient Oriental History are so connected with our present that to know them is to understand one more of the threads of life which has about it elemental power.

E. F.

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THE TEACHING OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL.

There is perhaps no field in history as difficult for high school students to follow and get something out of as Medieval History. Ancient History is fairly easy for most of them, especially if it is confined to the Greek mid Roman periods. There is very little confusion in following the course of development in Greek History or in Roman History. Each of these fields appears as a unit in itself and is easily grasped. But the student who has found smooth sailing in Ancient History oftentimes finds it rather rough going in Medieval History. The breaking up of the Roman Empire oftentimes marks for him the passing of all unity in all subsequent history, and the medieval period may be approached and followed by him in such a way that he never comes to realize that there are certain movements in it which are as well defined and as traceable in their growth and development as those in Greek and Roman History. This difficulty is not confined to high school students. Even college students often find the period lacking in unity and in interest, a period of veritable darkness.

That Medieval History has been so difficult and so meaningless to many students who had found the Ancient History interesting and significant, has been due in large part to the textbook writers. While there has been a great improvement in the textbooks on Medieval History in the last ten years, there is yet room for still further improvement as every wide awake teacher realizes.

But the trouble has not been due altogether to the text. The teachers themselves have not always been well trained in this particular field, and this has proved the greatest difficulty in making medieval history properly understood in our schools. As long as the teachers fail to appreciate the significance of the field they are trying to present, the best of texts will not avail to enlighten the subject very much. On the other hand if the teachers know what is significant they will bring it put in some way no matter what the text may be.

The medieval period will appear in its true significance only as it is viewed as the age during which most of our present insti-

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tutions and customs arose. That means it must be studied largely from the institutional point of view. The student whose medieval history is made to consist largely of narratives of events as they occurred during this period is very likely to become confused. As he passes from one people or nation to another in his efforts to follow these events he may find it difficult to remember which characters are French, which are German, and which are English, or to keep the threads of the different narratives from getting interwoven or tangled. But if his medieval history is made to consist largely of a study of the life and institutions of the period he will find it interesting and profitable. Herein lies the Secret of successful teaching of the subject.

One of the first things that a teacher should develop in the study of medieval history is the fact that the modern nations of Europe have arisen out of conditions that existed in the medieval period. In doing this there is no necessity of bringing in a great amount of what is called political history. Ordinarily the text books contain all the facts that are essential to an understanding of this phase. In attempting to explain, for example, the rise of France, Germany and Italy it will be quite sufficient for the teacher to make clear first, the establishment of a great many petty German kingdoms in western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth Century; second, the creation of a great Frankish Empire under Charles the Great through the consolidation of these Germanic Kingdoms; third, the dissolution of that empire into a great many fragments; fourth, the reconsolidation of those fragments about three national centers, resulting ultimately in the formation of France, Germany, and Italy. The formation of modern Germany and Italy was not completed until in the nineteenth century, but though long delayed, the foundations for it were laid far back in medieval times.

This line of historical development constitutes one of the threads which will guide the student through the apparent maize of medieval history, and as has been suggessted the material in the text book is ordinarily sufficient for that purpose. However, some attention should be given in this connection to the study of the development of the governmental institutions of these nations as they are being evolved. This will at times require a

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good deal of reading outside of the text, but it should not become burdensome nor stressed to the detriment of other matters. Other guiding threads will be found in the study of the economic and ecclesiatical development during this period, and for the, Successful prosecution of this work material must be secured outside of the text. Apropos that matter the following suggestions are offered.

The feudal system is largely responsible for the dissolution of the Caroligian Empire. If for no other reason that would be sufficient to justify some study of it as an institution. But there are other reasons which are perhaps more important why feudalism should receive a good deal of attention. Medieval society had a feudal basis. Save in a few districts here and there, every man at some time or other sustained the relation of either lord or dependent upon some one else. Certain customs and practices prevail which not only characterized the period but had an important influence upon subsequent times. There should be not only some study given to those conditions that gave rise to feudalism and to those that brought on its decline, but there should be a great deal more of study put upon the feudal institutions themselves. For example, the feudal manor is a subject worthy of study lasting several days. Such matters as the castle or manor house, the life of the lord and his tenants, the arrangements of the fields, the method of agriculture, the means of recreation and the like, are among the topics that may be pursued with great profit and interest, inasmuch as they reveal the manner of life in the country during this period. Other subjects, such as the feudal obligations of lord and vassal, feudal ceremonies, and feudal warfare should be carefully studied. (Cheyney, Social and Industrial History of England, Chapter II, and Seignobos, Feudal Regime, Chapter I, are good available references on the manorial system. Robinson s History of Western Europe, Chapter IX; Munro, Medieval Europe, Chapter V; Emerton, Medieval Europe, Chapter XIV, and Munro & Sellery, Medieval Civilization, pages 159 to 211, are convenient references on the fully developed feudal system.)

In like manner the life of the cities should be given special attention. The governmental institutions of the cities, markets, fairs, guilds, processes of manufacturing, means of inter-communi

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cation are subjects that reveal mitch of the manner of life in medieval cities, and should not be neglected. (Cheyney, Social and Industrial History of England, chapters III and IV; Day History of Commerce; Webster, History of Commerce are convenient books to consult On medieval cities and commerce. Many of the Medieval Towns Series published try E. P. Dutton & Co., N. Y., offer material on this subject.)

But medieval life is only half understood if looked at from the economic point of view. Medieval society was strikingly ecclesiastical, the church played a part in medieval times which was vaster and far more dominating than it has has played in recent modern times. Such matters as the founding of the church, the rise of the papacy, the episcopal organization, and the struggle between the Pepe and Emperor for supremacy in the Homan Empire, should fee clearly developed. But in addition to these matters which pertain to church organization, special emphasis should be put upon the practices, ceremonies and beliefs of the Church. This is especially important for students whose home or community religions environment has been such as to leave them generally uninformed on a great variety of matters pertaining to the Catholic church. A study of medieval church practices and doctrines will not only contribute to a clearer understanding on the part of the student of its dominating influence in medieval times but will also help him to appreciate the religious movements, both Protestant and Catholic, in modern times. (Flick, Rise of the Medieval Church, develops the institutional phase of church history and also presents a very interesting narrative of its growth.)

Medieval art and architecture should be given more attention than they usually get. At least enough attention should be given to Gothic architecture so that the student would be able to recognize a Gothic building when he should see one or see a picture of one. This end might be best attained by making a special study of some one great cathedral, or for example, Notre Dame at Paris, or the Cathedral of Rheims or of Cologne, or Westminster Abbey of London. (Hamlin s History of Architecture and Goodyear s Roman and Medieval Art are handy and very satisfactory hand books for this work.)

If medieval history is pursued along the lines here sug-

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gested, it will undoubtedly prove attractive and fruitful of good results. What may have appeared as a period of confusion and disorder will reveal itself as one of unity and development and will offer explanations for many institutions and customs that exist, with us today.

In the average high school course of medieval and modern history, one half of the time is usually given to the medieval period and one half to the modem period. Notwithstanding the importance of the medieval period, not more than one third of the time should be given to it in a general course in medieval and modern history. Moreover at least one third of the time should be given to the nineteenth century. The course in medieval and modem history that is arranged in this way will give greater opportunity for enabling the students pursuing it to appreciate conditions as they are today than if they divided the time equally between the medieval and the modern periods, provided the teacher knows how to seize upon those things that are essential and eliminate all that is not.

In view of this position it may be thought by some that this school is giving undue attention and emphasis to medieval history in its college courses. To that objection, if any is raised, we would reply that the student who spends a year in college medieval history will not only acquire for himself a fairly good understanding of the subject but will be in a position where he can select for himself those things that are essential and make them clear to his students when he undertakes to teach the subject in a high school. It is only the well trained student in medieval history who can make a success of a high school course where only one third of the time is devoted to that subject.
E.M.V.

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AMERICAN HISTORY DURING THE LAST TWENTY FIVE YEARS.

What say you of the teaching of American History of the last twenty-five years? This colloquial question comes up time and again. The more conservative teachers will inform you that the difficulties are so great that only a passing glance should be given. They will tell you that the period is so recent that undue prejudices will be aroused, that the history of that time is very well known by most young people, that the teacher will have great trouble in distinguishing the difference between recent history and current events.

Now the proper perspective may not be obtained but are there not facts to be ascertained, interpreted and lived among? There surely are, perspective or no perspective. Every intelligent person must face these facts. These facts will likely appeal differently to our descendants two hundred years from now when there is the proper perspective, so to speak, but the future generations do not wish a patent on things that we are compelled to use.

Undue prejudices will be aroused unless the teacher possesses catholicity of spirit and is willing to admit at almost every turn that different interpretations and differentiations must be faced. This facing in different directions is healthful, it is so akin to real life, it is real life.

As to the matter of waste of time, since American History of the last twenty-five years is very well understood, it may be the writer s experience has been a peculiar one, but almost everything he knows about it proves that this history is not well understood. If this is true how are we to study the past in relation to the present unless we know what the present is?

The flimsiest of all the difficulties stated is the fear that recent history and current events will not be carefully enough separated from each other. Not long since in a body of history teachers, a reader of a paper was quite severely criticised because he changed the title of his paper from "Current Events" to "Current History." It may be, considering the tenor of the paper, that the criticism was just, but it appealed to some of the listeners as largely a waste of words. Why should the history teacher wish to get his subject off in a corner to itself and say, "There, dear child,

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let us not wander away." The wandering now and then may mean stronger muscles, purer blood and better lungs for both the child and his guardian.

If most of the difficulties mentioned may be brushed aside, then how shall one shift more emphasis to the last twenty-five years? The text books are just beginning to help out some in that respect, but the information they give is by no means sufficient for any grade of work. The shifting of the emphasis will depend largely upon the teacher and the teacher will be compelled to see American history of the last twenty-five years from many view points.

About the first serious inquiry is as to how these view points are to be obtained. This might be answered in various ways, but perhaps the most fundamental answer is obtained by consulting the great daily newspaper and weekly and monthly magazines. In these one will find out pretty well what is now going on, especially in the economic, social and political life. Once having found these view points expressed in the vital movements of today, it is well to become a "Bellany Looking Backwards." In doing this the present may be interpreted historically, that is may be seen in its growth. The writer knows of a few teachers who rather insist that the pupils who are studying the beginnings of American History keep up with current events. If this habit of keeping up with current events may be gained once, it means for the rest of the life of the student, he will have some vital interest and will learn more history after leaving school than he ever did while in school.

Some one may say this sounds like good theory but how are you going to do it? The school takes very few papers or magazines There is no money for such things.  There are few communities now in which there are not newspapers at least taken. They are usually thrown away. These newspapers can with ease be made the common property of the school   clippings may be made or they may be kept on file. Until better text-books are written, a good beginning in the emphasis of the things that now are, is by the use of the material just mentioned. It will not be long until modern text-books will be written. Until then there should be no hesitancy in trying to get acquainted with the world as it is now.
E.F.

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THE USE OF SOURCE MATERIAL.

The term source material has by common acceptation come to mean those selections from original sources that have been edited and published in books that are called source books, readings, translations and reprints and the like. It is in that sense that the term is used in this article.

The purpose of the teacher in using source material in the study of history is to illuminate the subject in hand an give the students a better comprehension of the same. Historical teaching should always have at least one end in view, that is the development on the part of the student of a better understanding of the times in which he lives. But this can be done only by showing him the past as it was and as it came to be what it was. It is here that source material renders its service. If it is some historical character that is under consideration, such as Sargon, Cyrus, Caesar, Charlemagne, Alfred, Cromwell, Washington, or Lincoln, it is not sufficient that the student should be limited in his reading to what men of our own times have written about them. These characters should be allowed to speak for themselves or their own contemporaries should be called upon to bear witness. Nothing makes a historical character become a man of real flesh and blood more readily in the minds of the students than a reading of what he said or what some of his contemporaries said of him. Just as the events of the Spanish American War take On with us a more human interest if we receive a letter from a friend or relative who was an eye witness to some of the things that happened in that war, so do the Crusades become more real and life-like if we are able to follow the account of one of the Crusaders as he related the events in which he participated in a letter Written from Palestine back to his friends or family at home.

Source material for extensive class room use has been available in only the last twenty-five years. Prior to that time the student was largely confined to the text or to the larger secondary works. The pioneers in this effort to put source material in the hands of the students in such form as would be usable, are, as far as I know, Mary Sheldon Barnes in her General History, Channing and Hart in their American History Leaflets, and the Old South Meeting House Association in their Old South Leaflets. At

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present there is an abundance of source material available for class room use and there is yet more to come. This material appears in two different kinds of books: 1. Source books which contain complete documents of varying length and extracts from a great variety of original sources. The documents and extracts may be brought together in a single volume merely to illustrate various phases or subjects in a given field, as for example Thatcher and McNeal s Source Book, Robinson s Readings, and Ogg s Source Book; or they may be arranged so as to approximate a narrative of the period, as for example Botsford s Story of Rome. 2. Complete works such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Polybius, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Froissart, memoirs, journals, diaries, collected works of prominent men, and so on. Some of these are available in very cheap form, as in the Everyman s library and the Bohn Series.

There is much to criticise in the source books. Many teachers hope that they will soon be abandoned and that in their stead the complete works will be used. While that is a consummation that may be devoutly hoped for, yet the source book with all its faults has rendered a great service, and if its defects are remedied in the new editions that are to come forth, its day of usefulness will be prolonged for a long time to come. For one thing it is inexpensive as compared with the complete works; the cost of equipping a library with a set of source books is a great deal less than the cost of a sufficient number of the complete works.

The question before the thoughtful teacher is how to use this material. The available amount of this material increases every year. Only a limited portion can be appropriated. But how select and apply this material is the important question. With this question in mind the following suggestions are made and it is hoped that they may be of some practical value to the teachers who are seeking to make a more intelligent use of source material.

The suggestions that are made are based upon the actual experience which the writer has had in his classes. It is believed that greater good is derived from specific and concrete illustrations drawn from actual experience than from generalities which are not based upon any experiences at all. And so at the risk of appearing too personal the writer has chosen to relate how he has handled source material in his classes in Medieval, Modern

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and English History. It is therefore to be understood that every illustration hereafter mentioned is based upon some actual experience which the writer has had in his work as a teacher.

The teacher finds that source material for class room use is to be had in its most convenient form in what is commonly called source books, such as Thatcher and McNeal, Robinson, Cheyney, Colby, Ogg, and others. There are at least two different ways to handle; the material in books of this sort. First the teacher may assign a certain document or set of documents in one of these books to be read along with the assignments in the text or in some special reference work. When this is done some specific question or questions may be definitely put to the class which they will find answered in the document or documents which they are required to read. For-example, if a study is being made of the War of Investiture between Henry IV and Gregory VII, the letters that passed between them as given in Thatcher and McNeal may be assigned for study, and the specific question, what impression is gained from these documents as to the character of the struggle, may be asked of the students. Or, if the fifteenth century church councils are being considered the documents given in the series of the University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, Vol. II, No. 6 may be assigned for study and the students required to make an outline of the schemes of reform that were before the? Councils as far as the documents given them will show. Or, if the Peasants Revolt an England in 1381 is the subject, the class may be asked to make an analysis of the provisions of the Statute of Laborers as given in Lee s Source Book of English History or Adams and Stephens English Constitutional Documents, and the reasons for each of these provisions; or they may be asked to read Froissart s account of the revolt and be prepared to discuss the authors attitude to the matter and the revelations of his character that are made in his account.

It is not always necessary or desirable to give definite questions to the students which they will find answered in the documents they are to read and study. Rather at times it is well to assign the documents with no hint as to what use is to be made of them. The students are to be left to make out for themselves what is significant in the documents and make their own application of the results they obtain.

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Occasionally the students may be required to put into written form the results of the study of the documents which they have been making before, coming to the class, but more generally it is best to have them discuss the matter orally.

But it is not always desirable to put the source material in the hands of the students before they come to the class room. There are times when the teacher finds that it is better to defer putting this material in the hands of the students for the first time until they have come to the class room. There is a limit to the amount of work which can be expected of the students in preparation for the class discussions, so that not all the available material on a given subject can be assigned for their consideration before they appear in the class room. Moreover it is well to remember that the class exercise can be made, and should be made, occasionally at least, a study period when new subject matter will be introduced and worked out at once. The history teacher will not find it inappropriate to put new material in the hands of the students when they assemble for the class discussion of material they have already been working upon. Source material lends itself readily to such uses. For example, if the events leading up to the Franco-Prussian War are the subjects for consideration, the story of how Bismark edited the famous Ems telegram for publication is made all the more interesting to the students if the teacher puts in their hands copies of Anderson s Documents of France and turns to the page where the original telegram and the blue penciled edition are found side by side on the same page in parallel columns. Or, if the subject of legal penalties in England in the nineteenth century is the topic for study, some one in the class may be asked to read aloud from Cheyney s Readings the extracts from the Report of the Committee to Parliament in 1820 on that subject. Many instances of this sort could be given to show how a topic could be made more lively and profitable in the class discussion by the mere introduction of new material while the subject was under consideration.

Frequently the teacher will find it desirable to have certain documents before the students while in the class even though they have already made some study of them in advance. This is particularly true of constitutional documents such as the Magna Charta, the Petition of Right, the Bill of Rights, or the Constitu-

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tion of 1791 in France. The Magna Chart for example, is so full of technicalities that it is absolutely necessary to have it under the eyes of the students in discussing certain of its provisions. The teacher finds it possible to offer explanations and make applications if the students have before them this document than he would otherwise find extremely difficult to do. The Petition of Right can be all the better understood if while under discussion it is in the hands of the students. The teacher can point out the formula that was followed by those who drafted it 

how they set forth, first the existing laws in a given matter; second, the violation of these laws by the king; and third, the request that he would violate them no more. In making use of the document itself in the class in this way, the fact that the Petition of Right was no new law but merely a petition to the king to observe existing law, is so clearly brought out that it will never be forgotten.

Fortunately for the cause of historical study and teaching it is no longer necessary to be satisfied in all cases with mere extracts from the sources. Works that are counted as original sources are now being published in cheap form and the 1st of such publications is growing. The use that can be made of such works depends upon conditions but in nearly every instance the complete work will be found much more effective than the extracts in the source book. For example, a copy of the Koran in the hands of the student will enable him to see for himself its form and a great deal more of its contents than he could find in the extracts that are in the source books. Imagine the conception that any of us would form of the Bible if our only first hand knowledge of it was gained through extracts painted in a book that contained also extracts from possibly fifty or more other works. Medieval Chronicles mean a great deal more to the student if copies of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Froissart are in their hands. He is able to find out for himself what things interested the chroniclers and how they were recorded by them. He can also draw some conclusions of his own from his personal investigations of these works as to their merits and their value as historical documents.

The students may have copies of Einhard s Life of Charles the Great put in their hands and may be told to construct their own story of that character from this book and to compare the

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results of their investigations with the accounts of various authors. This little work is available in very inexpensive form.

In making use of such material as this, the teacher may proceed as in the case of source books. He may make definite assignments in these works or he may set certain specific questions before the students which they are to solve from the .examination of the sources. Or he may leave the students to browse around in these works as their fancy or interest may suggest, and see what results they gather up.

An all important question now needs attention. How often should the students be sent to the source books or complete original works? To that question let a conditional answer be given. If it is high school students, or freshmen or sophomores in college that the teacher is dealing with, it as not wise to bring in such work daily. The attempt to have students of this rank develop a subject from the original sources alone is sheer folly. Suppose the Crusades are under consideration and a fairly good lot of sources had already been collected and edited in such a way that the narrative of the entire subject could be worked out of them by the students. It is doubtful whether this method would be advisable. For one thing the mass of the sources necessary to give a good idea merely of the events of the Crusades would have to be much greater than the account written by a skilled author of today. Far better is it that the students should follow as a guide an account written by a specialist, and then make use of well chosen extracts or documents that bear upon some special topic or phase of the subject. A general rule which would likely be safe to follow is that sources should be used often enough to lend additional interest and to illuminate the subject in band, and very seldom, if ever, used exclusively in the development of any subject. Sources if used unskillfully will kill interest as quickly as mere text book reciting without comment or discussion.

The sources that have been referred to so far have been such that could be read and studied by the students in some manner. But there is another kind of sources that can be used in high school and also college classes for exhibitory purposes merely. The. list of such sources is a rather long one but the method of using them may be illustrated in one or two ways.

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Suppose the class is making some study of the Magna Charta and has been using the printed document as found in the source books. Suppose while this study is being made a facsimile reproduction of the Magna Charta is shown to the class. The whole subject means a great deal more than it did before. The document as it appeared in the printed page of the source book does not appeal to the student at first glance as somthing that has come down from a long time ago. But the facsimile copy, though the teacher and the students may not be able to read one line of it, will make them at least feel that the Charter belongs to some other age than their own. Likewise facsimiles of Papal Bulls and Imperial Charters may be shown with great interest and profit. The Doomsday Survey of William the Conquorer means a great deal more to the students if they can see the facsimile of that portion pertaining to any one county in England at that time.

Many a student who reads about the codification of the Roman Law under Justinian fails to realize that the labor bestowed upon that effort ever resulted in anything that took tangible form. But if the student has before him a set of the Corpus Juris Civilis in modern form, he will realize that not only did the labor of Justinian and his collaborators produce somthing definite and tangible, but that it has come down to the present day. Though he may not be able to read a word of the Latin and Greek original, he gets an appreciation of the matter that he would not otherwise have gotten if this modern edition of the Corpus had not been placed before him. Likewise the Corpus Juris Canonici and the Pseudo-Isidorean Decretals are made all the more real and interesting if copies of these works are within reach of the students. Even the mere handling of works that are translated, such as the Koran or the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, will be of some benefit though not a line of them be read. The mere physical contact does something to develop a better historical appreciation which justifies the purchase of certain source materials for exhibitory purposes only.

Another practical question arises. How shall a library be effectively equipped with source material? That depends always upon the amount of money that can be used. But one suggestion will apply to all libraries no matter how much money can be had,

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and that is to buy as many duplicate copies as possible of the books that will be needed most for effective historical study. After that is done then buy duplicate copies of the next and the next until the list of such books has been exhausted, and then, begin to buy single copies of those books that are not so much needed. To make the case as concrete as possible if the teacher has only $15 to spend on source books it would be better to put at least $10 of it in buying duplicate copies of one title rather than buying a single copy of as many books as the whole amount would secure.

The possibilities that lie open to the history teachers in the use of source material are extensive but they have hardly been realized by them as yet. The source method has been overdone by some teachers. One prominent advocate of the source method carried to its extreme limit, has sought to put history study upon the same basis as physics, for example. It is no longer considered a good thing, so he says, for the students in physics to cover the whole, range of the subject in the ordinary course. Instead of doing that, they are required to restrict their study to a very few things in physics and to perform a great many experiments and establish for themselves through these experiments a few principles in this science. According to this it is better that the students should know thoroughly how and why a few things are done in physics than they should know a little about a great many things. So in history, this enthusiast over the source method would have students confine themselves to the task of constructing history for themselves. The trouble with this method is that it supposes that every every student of history is going to become a specialist in the subject while as a matter of fact only a very few will ever become so. Instead of getting every student of history to construct from the original sources his own account of a few topics, it is better to put him under the guidance of some good authoritative work or set of works and have him use source material largely for illustrative purposes. The golden mean between no use of source material and the use of it to the exclusion of all secondary material, seems to be worthy of consideration and adoption.

The appended list of source books may be of some value to those who would like to make a more extensive use of such in their

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teaching of history in secondary schools. Only those hooks that are easily available are here listed.

ANCIENT HISTORY.

Botsford, Story of Rome as the Greeks and Romans Tell It. Macmillan. 1903. $ .90.

As the editors say in the preface to this book their object has been to supply pupils in Roman History with instruction and interesting reading from the sources. They have connected and interwoven the material selected from the various sources an such a manner as to form a continuous story. The difficulties in the extracts are explained in the notes and references. Some of the extracts describe institutions but most of them are narrative and biograhpical.

Davis, Readings in Ancient History: Illustrative Extracts from the sources. Vol. I, Greece and the East. Allyn & Bacon. 1912. $1.00.

This volume, according to the editor, has been prepared for immature students and is devoid of learned notes and citations. Its notes and introductions are to make the selections comprehensible to readers with little experience in Ancient History. It is the only book that contains readings on Oriental History. A second volume on Roman history is evidently in preparation.

Fling, Source Book of Greek History. Heath. 1907. $1.00.
Munro, Source Book of Roman History. Heath, 1904. $ .90.

These two books are companion books and are arranged on the same plan. The extracts in them illustrate not only the narrative history of Greece and of Rome but also the institutions of Government and manners and customs. Each book has about twenty-five pictures drawn from the original sources that illustrate still further the topics treated. In the appendices are some editorial comments on the sources from which the extracts have been drawn and on the Illustrations.

Medieval and Modern HISTORY.

Anderson, Constitutions and other Select Documents Illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1907. Wilson. Second Edition, revised and enlarged, 1908. $2.00.

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State Teachers College Library

An indispensable help to those tracing the constitutional development in France since the outbreak of the French Revolution. There has been very little abbreviation of the more important documents.

Henderson, Select Documents of the Middle Ages. Bell, Bohn Series. 1892. $1.50.

One of the very first source books on medieval history. Except for the first group of selections which bear upon English history the materials that have been selected by the author illustrate the Empire and Church. Law, religion, politics and feudal civilization have guided him in his selections. There are no editorial notes of explanation as in Thatcher and McNeal or Robinson.

Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History. American Book Co. 1908. $1.50.

A book of well selected and judicially edited source extracts. They are neither too fragmentary nor too lengthy as in many of the source books. As a rule each extract is of sufficient length to arouse interest. The explanatory notes of the editor are well worked out.

Robinson, Readings in European History, 2 vols. Ginn. 1904 $1.50 a volume.

A collection of extracts from the sources chosen for the purpose of illustrating the progress in Western Europe since the invasions. The extracts illustrate the subjects emphasized by the author in his text,  The History of Western Europe.  The author s interest in the life, manners, and customs of all the classes of the people is seen in the selection of materials.

An abridged one .volume edition has been published and is very usable in high schools that may find it impossible to buy the larger two volume edition. This can be purchased for $1.50.

Robinson and Beard, Readings in Modern European History, 2 vols. Ginn. 1908. $1.40 and $1.50.

A collection of extracts from the sources chosen to illustrate the development of Europe during the last 200

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years. The first volume deals with the age of Louis XIV, the French Revolution, and Napoleon. As far as the French Revolution and Napoleon are concerned the extracts in this work are practically the same as those in the second volume of Readings of European History. The other periods are more amply illustrated, especially the nineteenth century. The work is constructed along the lines followed in the author's text  The Development of Modern Europe," 2 vols.

Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Medieval History. Scribners. 1905. $2.00.

A carefully selected and well edited collection. The book is particularly valuable for the critical notes of the editors which prove to be helpful to both teacher and student. It contains nothing on English or French History. The editors felt there was no need of documents on English History because of the many excellent source books in that field that are available. They promised to make up for the omission of French History documents by publishing later a collection devoted exclusively to French History, but as yet it has not appeared. Fully one half of the book is given up to the empire and the church.

University of Pennsylvania Translation and Reprints from the Original Sources of European History. Department of History, University of Pennsylvania, 1894-99.

This is a series of pamphlets published by the History Department of the University of Pennsylvania. They contain, documents bearing upon Ancient, Medieval and Modern History. There are six volumes in the series, each of which contains from two to seven pamphlets. The documents in a given pamphlet bear upon a single subject and develop it historically. Each pamphlet is edited by an acknowledged authority in the subject that is treated.; There is however, very little of explanation made by these editors on the various documents in the pamphlets. The volumes may be bought separately, and so may likewise the pamphlets, from either the University of Pennsylvania or Longmans Green and Co., N. y. The price of the pamphlets ranges from 15 to 80 cents.

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Just as this bulletin is going to press a circular from Harper Brothers announces that a new source book on Medieval History by Duncalf and Krey is now in press and will be forthcoming very shortly. From the announcement it appears to. be quite new in method, the Subject being presented in the form of problems.

ENGLISH HISTORY.

Adams and Stephens, Documents Illustrative of English Consti-tutional History. Macmillan. $2.25.

As the title suggests the documents in this book are constitutional in character. Nothing is given on the Anglo-Saxon period as the editors hold that very little, if anything, was contributed to the present English Government from that time. No comment is given on any of the documents.

Cheyney, Readings in English History drawn from the Original Sources. Ginn. 1908. $1.80.

Arranged to accompany the author s text book, A Short History of England. The number of topics illustrated is a large one. The interest of the author in the social and industrial affairs is seen in the character of many of the extracts put in the book.

Colby, Selections from the Sources of English History. Longmans, Green and Co: $1.50.

A well arranged group of extracts. One of the first source books gotten out on English History.

Kendall, Source book of English History. Macmillan. 1900. 80 cents.

The least expensive source book on English History on the market. Most of the extracts illustrate social and industrial life. The constitutional phase of English History is practically ignored. The editorial comments are made on the margin of the pages, and to many they appear in objectional form.

Lee, Source Book of English History. 1900. Holt. $2.00.

Most of the documents contained in this book are legal or constitutional in character though there are many extracts from contemporaneous writers on other matters. The book contains a well arranged bibliography of the Sources of

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English History and in this particular is unlike any other Source Book. There is very little of editorial comment given with the documents.

Old South Leaflets. 8 vols. Directors of Old South Work, Boston.

There are 202 leaflets in this series. They deal largely with American History but there are many that deal with English History. A list of the series may be had on application of the publishers. Each leaflet costs five cents.

In addition to these books there should be mentioned Stubbs, Select Charters Illustrative of English Constitutional History, $2.25; Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents, $2.00; Gardiner Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, $2.25. These are published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, England. Stubbs covers the early Medieval Period, Prothero the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, and Gardiner the Period of the Puritan Revolution. They are intended primarily for advanced students but may be used to some advantage by high school students in parts at least.

AMERICAN HISTORY.

Caldwell and Persinger, Source History of the United States from 1492 to 1877. Ainsworth. Chicago. 1909.

The extracts in this book are arranged in sections so that in a given section a given topic will be developed. At the close of each section is a series of questions and references to certain text books. The purpose of the questions is to lead the student to do more than casually read the extracts. From the material offered in the extracts and from the references the student is expected to frame his own statement of the subject under consideration.

Channing and Hart, American History Leaflets. Lovell and Co. 1892-1896.

At least thirty pamphlets have been published in this series. Many of the most important documents pertaining to our history were brought out in accessible form for the first time through this series. The pamphlets are sold separately at ten cents a piece.

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Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, 4 vols. Macmillan. 1899-1901. $2.00 a volume. The volumes are sold separately.

These are the most entensive general source books on American History that have as yet been published. Vol. I covers the period from 1492 to 1689; Vol. II, 1689 to 1783; Vol. III, 1783 to 1845; Vol. IV, 1845 to 1900. In this series are set forth many rare and important documents which are to be found only in the larger collections or very inaccessible books.

Hart, Source Book of American History. Macmillan. 1909 $.60.

This book contains selections from a great variety of sources covering the entire field of American History down to 1898. The first 46 pages are given to discussion of sources and their use. The editor has given explanatory notes on the margins of the pages. Fac-simile reproductions of four important documents are included  to suggest to young people the kind of manuscript and other material with which historians are familiar. 

Hart, Source Readers in American Readers. Macmillan. 1902-3.

These source readers were arranged for pupils in the grades, but high school students will find them of use and interest. The main object has been to set forth the life of the people of the past as it has been recorded in the writings of contemporaries. Volume I is entitled Colonial Children; II, Camps and Firesides of the Revolution; III, How our Grandfathers Lived; IV, Romance of Civil War.

Macdonald, Select Charters Illustrative of American History, 1601-1775. Macmillan. 1899.

Macdonald, Documents Illustrative of History of United States, 1775-1861. Macmillan. 1898.

Macdonald, Select Statutes and Other Documents Illustrative of the History of United States, 1861-1898.

These books constitute a connected series. The documents selected by the editor are largely constitutional. They constitute an indispensable tool to the students in working on constitutional and legislative problems in our history.

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Old South Leaflets. (See statement concerning them under English History.)

Preston, Documents Illustrative of American History. 1601-1863. Putman s. 1886.

This volume undertakes to do in a brief way what Macdonald does more extensively in three. It was long in use before Macdonald came out. Macdonald is better because of its scope but Preston will serve the purpose if the other work, which is the more expensive, cannot be had.

E. M. V.

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SETTING THE PROBLEM.

(Reprinted from the History Teachers Magazine for October, 1912).

Successful teaching involves on the part of the teacher the ability to make clear to his students what they are expected to do in the courses they are pursuing, and to indicate at least some of the goals towards which their study is leading them. In other words it involves the proper  setting of the problem.  Inasmuch as I consider this a very vital matter, I wish to set forth a few things concerning it, which are based upon my experience as a teacher for ten years or more. And in order that it may be clearer to those who may read this article as to character of students I have been dealing with, I would say that during this time I have had regularly each year one class in history of high school rank and two or three classes of college rank.

I have found that the problems that I have been able to put before my students divide themselves into two great groups: first those which are to be solved in regular class work; second, those which are to be solved outside of regular class work. The first group is made up of all those questions and topics to which the attention of the entire class is directed and upon which the teacher and students put a common effort; the second group is made up of those questions and topics which are assigned to different students in the class for special investigation, the results of which may or may not be brought before the whole class. In order that this paper may not be too long I shall confine myself to the first group.

In the first group of problems I am able to distinguish three different kinds. There are first the daily problems, that is those problems that are given today for tomorrow s study and solution. Such problems should be set before the students in the clearest possible way. The teacher owes it to himself and to his class to state the next day s work in such a manner that he can not be misunderstood by the student of average intelligence at least. That means as a usual thing a definite assignment in the text book or books of reference, or both. It may be sometimes advisable for the teacher to leave it to his students to find the book or books which contain the material wanted, and then to search around

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around therein until this material is found. But in high school work and often in the first two years of college work, it is more generally advisable for the teacher to cite his students directly to those books that may be used in the preparation of the task assigned, and to the very pages in those books. It is not only saves the time of the students, but it prevents them from that teeling of desperation that oftentimes comes over them when they discover that the material that they have found for themselves is either not enough or more than they can possibly make use of in the time at their disposal.

The teacher who is supposed to have gone over the field fairly thoroughly in advance of his students should aid them in getting directly at the matter in hand and not leave them to flounder around without adequate direction. Perhaps this plan of giving specific references should not be followed all the time. Doubtless there is much to be gained in occasionally leaving the students to their own devices in finding their material, but the likelihood is that if this becomes the regular rule the laboriousness of the task upon the part of the student would be increased without sufficient compensation to justify it.

Generally the daily problem should be set before the students with some explanation as to its nature. This may take the form of an outline in which the main topics are set forth, or it may be by way of a few suggestions as to what is significant in the work, or what to look for in the study that is to be made. Whatever explanation is given in advance of the lesson should not be so full as to anticipate all or most of the ideas that the students would evolve out of their own study and thinking over the lesson. A sure way to deaden the interest of the students in their work is for the teacher to make the outline so full as to predigest all that is given them.

Time enough should be taken at each session of the class to make the daily assignment of work. Some teachers allow themselves the first or the last five minutes for this matter. Perhaps the best time to make the daily assignments are at the close of the hour. But many a teacher has found that the safest plan is to make them at the opening of the hour so that ample time is assured. If the assignment is put off until the very last, the chances are that the matter will be done hurriedly and thus

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unsatisfactorily. I have found that the character of the subject in hand on a given day determines whether it would be best to set the problems for the next day s work at the beginning or at the close of the hour.

The second class of problems that arise in the study of history consists of those whose solution cannot be reached in one day s work, but only after several days. Such problems generally arise when the class begins the study of certain well defined movements or periods. They can usually be set before the students by undertaking a general survey of the movement or period before the detailed study is taken up. For example suppose that the unification of Italy is the movement that is to be studied, and the teacher has reason to believe that the students do not have very much information, if any, on the subject in advance of the study they are about to make. It might well be the best thing to start this work by spending the first day in taking a survey of the whole movement, some brief account of the same being used as a basis for this study. At the time this survey is being made, the teacher could very carefully indicate what are the significant factors in this movement, and thus open up the way to the more intensive study that will be made in the following assignments. For example this survey will reveal that at least Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel were among the men whose work made united Italy possible, and the details of their contributions to that end could be made the object of investigation on the following days. Or the problem could be put in the form of a question or two and the discussion defined until the proper point had been reached in the study of this movement.

An example in church history will show how problems may be set in that field. On taking up the Reformation, the teacher might ask the students to be prepared at the end of their study of that movement to discuss the attitude of the different rulers towards the Reformation in their own countries and in other countries, and the effects of their attitude on the course of the Reformation. Or the teacher may put emphasis on the doctrines of the different Protestant leaders and set as the problem the comparison of these different doctrines, with the understanding that the discussion of this matter will be had perhaps at the close of the study of the movement. The advantage of this kind of

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problem is that the students know sometime in advance what they are to work upon when the study of a given movement or period is to be closed up, and they will naturally become alert to discover material on their problems as they are doing their regular daily work.

The third kind of problem is that which is placed before the class very early in the course, if not at the very beginning, and which can not be completely solved until along towards the dose of the course. The purpose of such; a problem is to direct the attention of the students all through a given course to certain conclusions that are to be reached at the end, and then assist them in taking definite steps towards those conclusions as the course proceeds. An example or two will illustrate.

In the course in Medieval and Modern History the teacher necessarily gives a great deal of attention to church history. If he wishes to increase the interest of his students in this phase of his subject, he will begin work upon it by making a study of the church as it is today, especially the Roman Catholic Church. In doing this he will serve two ends. In the first place if he lives in a Protestant community he will likely find that the information which his students have on the Catholic Church is very meager and distorted, and he can by some study of that church as it is today give to them some very important and much needed information, and perhaps set them right as regards many things about which they had been in error. He thus puts them in a position where they can study intelligently, if not sympathetically, the history of that church. In the second place he can then put before them this problem: How did the Catholic Church become to be what is it today? After this brief survey of conditions at the present he can take up the study of the history of the church from its very beginnings, and as he brings the class along through the various stages of its development he can point out how it gradually comes to be what it is today. At certain stages he can point out the origin and development of certain practices, customs, and institutions. Take for example the College of Cardinals. This involves first the study of the method of electing the Pope prior to the creation of the College of Cardinals by the decree of Nicholas II in 1059, and then of the evolution of the Conclave system. The teacher who wishes to make clear the historical reasons for

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the present method of electing the Pope will therefore be careful to see that his students know at the out set how the Pope is elected at the present and will then have them study at different points in the course the various methods of his election from earliest times to the present. Other subjects may be treated similarly with equal success.

In English History the teacher may find it desirable to develop the historical explanation for the present Cabinet System. If so he will greatly assist himself in this work by having his students study the present organization of the English government either at the beginning of the course or just after the Norman Conquest, and then develop the subject step by step as the medieval organization unfolds and becomes what it is today.

Personally I am fully convinced that one of the chief purposes of history study in the schools and colleges should be to enable the students to understand the times in which they are living; to enable them  to read their newspapers intelligently,  as some one has put it. And if this is a legitimate object in history teaching, the teacher will find it much easier to attain it by outlining early in his courses, especially those in Medieval and Modern, English, and American History, the conditions as they are at the present in their respective fields, and then by setting the problem as to how things came to be what they are today.

If this is the conscious object of the teacher, he will see to it that many of his daily assignments of work will contribute to the solution of the problems set at the beginning of the course. While in a measure every thing in the past has its part in explaining the present, some things are more important than others in that respect, and no teacher would try to shown how every event in the past played its part in the evolution of the present. Hence many of the daily problems in history study are concerned with matters that may be apparently of the moment. And yet the daily problems at many points in the course may be cast in such a way that its solution may bring the students one step nearer to the solution of the larger problem of explaining the present.

As a matter of fact however the teacher will find it difficult to live up to his original intention of bringing before his students the various stages in the evolution of the present out of the past, especially if he is dealing with the history of institutions. He

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may frequently find that the material needed for developing the different phases of this evolutionary process will be inadequate or poorly organized for his purposes. But the teacher should always keep the question before him as to whether the work of today will assist his students to see the growth of the present out of the past, and if he thinks it will, he should bend every energy towards directing that day s work so that it will make its contribution to that end. If this is done he will find an additional interest in the daily work that will compensate him fully for the extra effort that it may have cost.

Experience has shown me that the second and third kinds of problems that I have been discussing here may be set before students of high school rank as well as of college rank. Of course, the problems set before the high school students should not be as complicated as those before college students. I have not seen such work tried in the elementary school, and am therefore not prepared to say whether it would work or not; but I am inclined to believe it could be adopted and made usable there in many instances.

E.M.V.

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MCCLELLAN S PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN AS REVEALED BY THE SOURCES.

In the year 1088 there died the good Benedictine monk Lambert Hertzfeld who had set about to write a history of the world from the Creation, but who unfortunately died just before reaching the times in which he lived   and the only times of which he knew. A similar unkind fate overtook Regino of Prim, whose history of the Christain church began with the incarnation, but stopped at the opening of the Carolingian period. Their works might more properly be called curious accumulations of misinformation than history. It has become axiomatic that one must know of a period before he can write its history, or discuss it intelligently.

There is, however, great reluctance by people who participated in events acknowledging any ignorance about them despite the fact that governmental archives frequently reveal situations of which participants were either partially or wholly ignorant. The object of this paper is to cite one remarkable example of this which has chanced to come under my personal observation.

Shortly after the defeat at Bull Run the command of the army of the Potomac was given to Gen. Geo. B. McClellan who had just made a brilliant record in Western Virginia. Aided by the volunteers who poured into Washingon in response to President Lincoln s call for 500,000 volunteers, he soon fortified the Capitol, and built an army of approximately two hundred thousand, whose idol he became, and has to a remarkable extent ever since been. This may have turned his head, but at any rate, when urged, in early spring of 1862 to assume the offensive, and capture Richmond, for which purpose the army had largely been created, he had resort to such dilatory tactics that the nation quite lost patience, and the President was finally compelled1 to issue a General Order commanding an advance on February 22d.2

There were several plans, the two most important3 being Lincoln s, to attack the Confederate troops squarely in front   by which plan the army would serve the double purpose of protecting the city and attacking the enemy; and McClellan s own, of moving to Fortress Monroe and to the end of the Peninsula between the York and James Rivers, and attacking Richmond

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from there. McClellan finally succeeded in gaining the adoption of his plan, whereupon there followed a long delay until a naval force could be assembled large enough to transport his troops. Provision, it had been stipulated,4 must be made for the defense of the city of Washington, but as this seemed inadequate to the President5 and Secretary of War, at the last moment McDowell was detached from the main army and ordered to remain at Washington.6 Despite this reduction of 40,000 there were landed at Fortress Monroe 112,000 troops,7 to face whom the confederate commander had a force of 12,0008 immediately available under Magruder, and hardly over 60,000 in all Virginia.

Hardly had the campaign begun, however, when Gen. McClellan became obsessed with the idea that the troops facing him greatly outnumbered his own,9 and the ridiculous spectacle was then witnessed of his army laying cautious siege to Yorktown   defended by 11,000 men, one rifle and several smooth bore cannon, and a large number of "Quakers," wooden logs mounted and so painted as to resemble artillery.10 When, after a month, this fortress was finally abandoned11 by the Confederate troops a day before McClellan s batteries would have been ready to open fire, sufficient time had elapsed to allow the assemblage of a considerable army to defend Richmond.

McClellan then slowly advanced and after some less important engagements finally put his army in sight of the pity, in shape of a gigantic letter V, separated widely at the tips, and into two halves by a small river, the Chickahominy, across which there was but one bridge available for the Union soldiers. Here the Confederates attempted unsuccessfully to crumple the Union left wing (in the battle of Fair Oaks) altho the whole attack had to be met by only four divisions of the Federal army.12 Then Gen. Lee conceived the idea of uniting Jackson to his own army, and attacking the Union right.13 Again but a part of the Federal troops were used, but during the seven day s battle which ended July 1st, the Union center was made the James River, the base was moved and at the last day of the fighting, at Malvern Hill, southeast of Richmond, the Confederates were heavily repulsed. So badly demoralized were they, so heavily had they lost, and so insignificant on that day had been the Union losses14 that one might naturally expect an immediate attack on Richmond, which at

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this moment could hardly have been successfully defended.15 Instead of doing so, however, the Union troops were withdrawn to Harrison Landing on the James, the position was heavily fortified, and the campaign ceased.

As has already been stated, the Union army was 112,000 strong at the beginning of the campaign, and despite a heavy sick list and the losses by battle, ended with with 86,500 men in active service.16 The Strength of the Confederates was gradually increased until it reached a possible maximum of 82,00017 men at the opening of the seven days battle. At the close of that period Lee reported 59,000.18 There were further 35,000 men absent from the Federal army by authority. This is the closest the confederate army ever came to equalling the Union, and yet early in the campaign the commander began the complaint19 that he was seriously handicapped by lack of support from Washington, and by constant interference on the part of the administration in his plans. That there was such interference, the correspondence and orders hardly show while his declaration of lack of support is absolutely false. He never seemed to use even the material that lay at hand. The cry was however taken up by his soldiers, who for some reason idolized him and is widely entertained by veterans of his army at the present time.

Thus ended this remarkable campaign, in which the Union forces out-numbered the confederate from first to last; in which the entire Union army had never once been engaged all together; in which there were at least five20 excellent opportunities to capture Richmond; and in which, after every important engagement had been won, the campaign itself had been lost, not, however, thru the interference of the Government at Washington, but thru the incapacity of the officers in command.

J.L.K.

1. See Personal Memoirs of Grant, Vol. II, pages 122-3.

2. The President s Order is given in Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, Series I, Vol. V, pages 41-2.

3. Official Records Series, I, Vol. V, pages 41-5. See also Gorham - Life of Stanton, Vol. I, pages 345 ff.

4. Official Records, Series I, Vol. V, pages 45, 50, 678-85, 713.

5. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 57-62. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XII, part I, pages 230-1.

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6. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 66-7.

7. Official Records, Series I, Vol. V, pages 19-22. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 53-97. Gorham Life of Stanton, Vol. I, 383 differs.

8. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part I, page 405. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 64-84.

9. This was his attitude from the beginning of the Yorktown siege, and grew steadily throughout the campaign. See Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 71,79, 143, 151,181, part I, page 26, and his correspondence with Lincoln and Stanton for the period. See further Gorham Life of Stanton, Vol. I, pages 366 ff.

10. There is no reference to  Quakers  in the Official Reports of either side, but many memoirs of Confederates refer to their existence, and Gen. McClellan warmly denies that any such existed.

11. See Gorham Life of Stanton, Vol. I, page 390. Also Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part 3, pages 489-90.

12. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part I, pages 757 ff.

13. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part II, page 490. See further Henderson Stonewall Jackson, Vol. II, pages 10, ff.

14. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part II, page 37 gives the Union losses; 502, 973 the Confederate.

15. The army of the Potamac (Union) was alleged by McClellan to contain but 50,000 men (See Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, page 292) but was reported officially at 98,631 (id. page 312) while Lee s army at the beginning of the seven days  battle had numbered 86,500, and had lost approximately 20,000 men.

16. See note 15.

17. Henderson Stonewall Jackson, gives (II page 9) 86,500 for the Confederate army, after being joined by Jackson with 18,500 men. The records contain (series I, Vol. XI, pages 483-9) simply an enumeration of the divisions, no figures.

18. See Henderson Jackson, Vol. II, pages 9 and 72. Confederate casualties are reported in the Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part II, pages 973-84.

19. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XII, part I, pages 230-1. Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, part III, pages 294-299, 311,319. Gorham Life of Stanton, Vol. I, Chapter 52, quotes a large number of these complaining letters. See also correspondence of Gen. Wool with Secretary Stanton on Official Records, Series I, Vol. XI, parts I, and III passim.

20. When he first arrived on the Peninsula; after the capture of Yorktown; after Fair Oaks; at the beginning of the Seven Days  Battle, when Magruder held Richmond with but 30,000 men and when only a part of the Union army was fighting Lee and Jackson; and after Malvern Hill. For the last, see Henderson Life of Jackson, pages 68-70 of Vol. II.

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State Teachers College library

THE EQUIPMENT OF THE DIVISION OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT.

The material equipment of the Division of History and Government consists of a well selected lot of books on history and government, and considerable apparatus in the way of maps, charts, steropticons, lantern slides and models.

Especial hare has been exercised in selecting the books. The main consideration has been to select those, books that would be most serviceable in solving the problems set before the students in their regular class work. In some of our courses the students are required to provide themselves with texts books, but the text furnishes only a basis for the work. The subject pursued in a given course is developed largely through the use of library reference books. In many courses no text books are required at all so that the subjects in those courses are worked out through library books altogether.

We have found from experience that as a rule most successful results are obtained in a given class when all in that class can study the same daily assignments in reference works. Because of this we have followed the policy of securing enough duplicate copies of those books to which assignments are given, so that all the members of the class can do the same reading. As a rule there is one copy of a given book for every two or three students in a class. Our library is therefore well stocked with a large number of sets of duplicate copies. Sometimes the assignments for a given day s work in a given class may be made to different books, and the students will, on coming to the class, compare and supplement what they have gathered. But generally the class works as one person upon the same assignment.

In addition to these sets of duplicate copies which are used in their regular class work, we have been gradually acquiring a good many books in single copies for special work. These books have been selected with as much care as those purchased in duplicate copies.

Not counting U. S. government documents we have in our library about 10,000 volumes on history and government.

In addition to the library facilities the division is well equipped with apparatus of a varied character which is put into daily use

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in the various classes. This apparatus includes maps, charts, stereopticons with hundreds of lantern slides, and models.

The following lists of maps and charts will indicate something as to their character and value.


NAME OF MAP AUTHOR OR SERIES SIZE

World, Physical Rand, McNally 39x53

World Columbian 39x53

Ancient World Kiepert 40x72

Palestine Kiepert 75x50

Holy Land (double) Johnston 42x42

Persian and Macedonian Empires Kiepert 38x76

Greece, Ancient Kiepert 60x75

Athens, Ancient Schawbe 74x62

Italy, Ancient Kiepert 50x40

Roman Empire Kiepert 55x72

Roman Forum Huelsen 31x57

Europe, Physical Rand McNally 42x60

Austria-Hungary, Modern Kiepert 44x78

Germany, Modern Columbian 43x51

France, Modern Kiepert 52x42

Italy, Modern Kiepert 72x42

British Isles, Modern Columbian

Russia, Modern Kiepert 52x48

Paris, Modern Barrer 24x30

London, Modern Sanford 50x60
	
All the above named maps are in individual wooden cases and can be moved about from place to place. There is in addition a series of maps in a large case which are permanently fixed to the walls of one of the rooms. The maps in this case are of various modern countries of the world.

Relief Maps: There are six of these, each 34x48 inches in size. They are of Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, United States. They were made by the Central School Supply House of Chicago.

Historical Charts: There are four sets of historical Charts as follows:

MacCoun, Ancient History.

MacCoun, Medieval and Modern History.

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MacCoun, United States History.

Foster, United States History.

In addition to all these, the Division has several large size Unites States Government Maps, a map of Adair County by Vice, a black board map of Europe, and a great lot of wall outline maps. The wall outline maps were made on the maps published by the McKinley Publishing Co., Philadelphia and contain data that have been inserted by the students or the instructors.

The Division has two stereopticons, one in each of the two rooms where most of the history classes meet, and hundreds of lantern slides which are frequently used to illustrate different phases of work in hand. Sometimes an entire hour is taken up with such work, at which time a large number of slides are presented. At other times the stereopticon will be used for only a few minutes for the purpose of illustrating one or two points that have come up in the lesson, after which the regular work will go on. The slides are arranged in sets to illustrate different subjects in Ancient, Medieval, and American History especially.

One of the stereopticons has a reflectoscope attachment by means of which opaque objects such as pictures and maps and the like, not over five inches square, may be imaged on the screen directly from books or cards with almost the same clearness as slides.

These stereopticons are used in the history courses in the Practice School and in the Normal School. Often the same set of slides will be shown to pupils of the grades and to students in the high school and college courses with of course an adaptation of explanation necessary to the case.

The division has a large number of the famous Rausch historical models which illustrate many phases of Ancient and Medieval History.

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COURSES IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT.

The Division of History and Government offers four courses of high school rank and seven courses of college rank. It also offers a course in the Teaching of History.

The High School courses are as follows:

1. American History, 3 quarters. Mr. Fair, Mr. Kingsbury, Mr. Otterson.

2. Civil Government, 2 quarters. Mr. Otterson.

3. Advanced Civil Government, 1 quarter. Mr. Otterson.

4. European History, 3 quarters. Mr. Violette and Mr. Kingsbury.

The College Courses are as follows:

1. Ancient History, 3 quarters. Mr. Kingsbury.

2. Medieval History, 3 quarters. Mr. Violette.

3. Modern History, 3 quarters. Mr. Violette.

4. English History, 3 quarters. Mr. Violette.

5. American Constiitutional History, 3 quarters. Mr. Fair

6. Political Institutions, 3 quarters. Mr. Fair.

7. American Government and Politics, 3 quarters. Mr. Fair.

The Teaching of History, one quarter. Mr. Violette and Mr. Fair.

Extension courses have been given for the last two years by Mr. Fair at Lancaster, Queen City, and Macon. He is giving one this year at Green City. The classes have averaged about ten in number each year.

Inquiries concerning any of these courses may be directed to the Chairman of the Division or the teacher of the course or courses about which inquiry is being made.

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ART HISTORY AND ART APPRECIATION.

The course in Art History and Art appreciation aims to "enrich the lives of the students by a study of the greatest Art of the past, thereby refining and stimulating creative effort for the expression of the life of the present." Close correlation with the work of the History Department makes more vital the knowledge that the measure of growth in the appreciation of the beautiful is also a measure of the true and good in man s character.

A prerequisite to this college course in Fine Arts is at least a course of European History of High School rank. Each period in the development of Art is studied by the aid of the best references, lantern slides, rich illustrative material and animated class discussions. This has been found a more satisfactory method than that of lectures in which the pupils take no part save the preparation of certain text book assignments.

Note books illustrated with sketches and prints are made by each student and are an invaluable record of an intensely interesting study.

This course in its entirety is as a general thing pursued only by students whose major subject is Fine Arts. In order to give to the whole student body some conversance with the great Art of the past and at least some power to interpret and appreciate the beautiful, a series of talks on Art appreciation, illustrated by the finest slides obtainable, will be given during the year at the hour of general assembly.

Scattered throughout the building are a number of reproductions of great scuplture and painting to which additions will be made from time to time. These will be given especial attention in the Art talks and each pupil will be expected to recognize, appreciate and locate these works of Art both in nationality, history and type of Art expression. The half tone cuts on adjoining pages represent some of the replicas of famous pieces of sculpture possessed by the school.

The course as outlined below will be studied in careful detail by the class in Art History and will be treated in a more general way in the informal talks given to the assembly.

The following courses of one quarter each are given in the

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LORENZO DE MEDICI BY MICHELANGELO.

(On Northwestern stairway of the Normal School Building.)



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History and Appreciation of Art and the Principles of Historic Ornament.

I. Prehistoric, Oriental and Greek Art.

A. Prehistoric Art. The origin of Art as illustrated in the Stone Age and the Metal Age. The crafts of such people as the cave dwellers, the prehistoric tribes of Brittany and Switzerland. Basketry, pottery and picture writing of our modern Indians used as examples of the growth of a decorative art out of purely utilitarian crafts.

B. Oriental Art.

1. Egypt, the land of the temple builders. Students grow familiar with

a. the majestic pyramids and temples such vas Luxor, Karnak and Edfou, the Sphinx and the colossal figures of Memnon.

b. Sketches of temple plans, architectural detail and historic ornament prepared for the note books.

2. Brief sketch of the ornament and sculpture of Assyria and Babylonia with a short study of the architecture of those nations.

C. Prehistoric Greek Art.

Old Agean and Mycenean studied with an especial view to developing the relation of the Art of this period to Historic Greek Art and Architecture.

D. Historic Greek Art and Architecture.

1. Architecture.

a. Influence of climate.

b. Glasses of buildings. Building materials.

c. Styles of architecture. Doric, Ionic and Corinthian Orientation.

d. Acropolis and Greek temples.

Parthenon

Erectheum.

Theseum.

e. Sculptural decorations of architecture.

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NIKE OF SAMOTHRACE, BETTER KNOWN AS THE WINGED VICTORY OF THE LOUVRE.

(In General Assembly Room.)



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2. Sculpture. Development of sculpture from archaism to the Golden Age and Hellenistic period.

The great pieces of classic sculpture are made familiar objects to the student. Relation of classic art and architecture to our modern art and architecture are made a special study.

3. Brief study of Greek painting.

More extensive study of the minor arts, vases, jewelry, mausoleums, metal work, etc.

Some clay modeling and wooden models of Greek architecture are used as illustrative material.

II. Roman and Medieval Art.

A. Roman Art.

1. Architecture. Its development through combination of Greek architecture with Roman ideas.

The evolution of an original Roman architecture.

2. Sculpture. Its relation to Greek sculpture.

3. Roman painting and the minor arts.

B. Christian Art.

Development from Roman Art and Architecture. Development in the East and West as illustrated in the Mosque of Omar and the Alhambra.

C. Romanesque and Gothic Art and Architecture.

Development and comparisons between different styles in different countries of Europe.

Four periods of Gothic architecture

Different types of sculpture in different countries.

Symbolism.

Comparison with classic sculpture.

Gothic painting.

Stained glass windows.

III. Renaissance Art and Architecture.

A. Relation of Renaissance Architecture to Classic Architecture.

Individualistic architecture.

B. Sculpture. A study of the old masters. Michelangelo.

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Comparison with Greek Sculpture.

C. Painting. A study and comparison of the great masters of the Renaissance, especially of Sienna, Florence, Venice, Leonardo da Venici, Raphael, Titian.

The Milanese and Roman Schools, Coreggio.

France and the Flanders Van Eyck, Rembrandt, Rubens, Van Dyck, Hals.

Germany,

Durer, Holbein.

Italian decadence and the Spanish school.

Velasquez and Murillo.

IV. Modern Art and Architecture.

A. Modern Architecture. American work emphasized with an aim toward improvement of modern ideals.

B. Sculpture and painting. A study of modern masters. Development from the Renaissance, An especial study of American masters and ideals in Art.

The following is a list of some of the reference books used in the courses of History of Art and Art Appreciation.

Perrot and Chipiez, Histories of Ancient Art.

Mitchel, History of Ancient Sculpture.

Reber, History of Ancient Art.

Lubke, History of Art.

Perry, Egypt, the Land of the Temple Builders.

Tarbell, History of Greek Art.

Gardner, Ancient Athens.

D Ooge, The Acropolis of Athens.

Hamlin, History of Architecture.

Bannister Fletcher, History of Architecture.

Gardner, Handbook of Greek Sculpture.

Gardner, Grammar of Greek Art.

Reber, History of Medieval Art.

Moore, Gothic Architecture.

Moore, Character of Renaissance Architecture.

Anderson, Italian Renaissance Architecture.

Wolfflin, The Art of the Italian Renaissance.

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Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in Italy.

Reinach, Apollo.

Muther, History of Modern Painting.

Isham, History of American Painting.

Taft, History of American Sculpture.

Caffin, The Story of American Painting.

King, American Mural Painting.

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(Back Cover)