(Front Cover) BULLETIN OF THE FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL Volume XVI Number 1 JANUARY, 1916 Publisht Monthly History and Government Series No. 4 (Page i) (Page ii) BULLETIN OF THE FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL KIRKSVILLE, MISSOURI FOUNDED BY JOSEPH BALDWIN AS THE NORTH MISSOURI NORMAL SCHOOL, SEPTEMBER 2, 1867 ADOPTED AS THE FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL, DECEMBER 29,1870 UNDER ACT OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY, APPROVED MARCH 19, 1870 OPEND AS THE FIRST DISTRICT NORMAL SCHOOL, JANUARY 1, 1871 VOLUME XVI NUMBER 1 JANUARY, 1916 Publisht Monthly by the First District Normal School History and Government Series No. 4 CONTENTS SEATON, A High School Unit in Economics...3 KINGSBURY, Model of an Egyptian House...6 KINGSBURY, Useful Metals in the Ancient World...9 JOHNSON, The Problem Method of Teaching History in the High School...14 VIOLETTE, The Historical Museum—How to Collect and Use One...23 Enterd as second class mail matter April 29, 1915, at the post office at Kirksville, Missouri, under the Act of Congress of August 24, 1912. (Page iii) Division of History and Government JOHN R. KIRK, PRESIDENT EUGENE MORROW VIOLETTE, PROFESSOR OF EUROPEAN HISTORY AND CHAIRMAN OF THE DIVISION EUGENE FAIR, PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT (On leave of absence, 1915-16) ANDREW OTTERSON, PROFESSOR OF CIVICS JOSEPH LYMAN KINGSBURY, PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT HISTORY BYRON T. JOHNSON ACTING PROFESSOR OF AMERICAN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT (Page 3) A HIGH SCHOOL UNIT ECONOMICS S. E. Seaton, Superintendent of Schools, Macon, Mo. (For some years the Macon High School has maintained a very creditable course in Economics. For the first few years Supt. Seaton had personal charge of this work. Owing to the growing interest in the subject as a high school study, the Division of History and Government of this institution has asked Supt. Seaton to contribute the following article in which he describes the manner in which the course has been given at Macon.) It has been so often repeated that history and government teaching must be rescued from dulness to become interesting or profitable, that any repetition smacks of triteness; but the fact remains that much of the teaching of these subjects, at least as presented in High Schools, is still little more than the “rattling of the dry bones” of a dead organism. A little girl once described a skeleton as “the bones with the person rubbed off”. I am persuaded that much of the work done in these potentially most interesting subjects is almost wholly devoid of the element of real human interest. Any legitimate device that will add the human charm to the most intensely human of all fields of study will at once relieve it of any suggestion of dulness and endow it with all the interest of a drama. Some make use of sociological research and study as one such device; and no doubt, when judiciously used, it may be very helpful. For a number of years, I have given a course in Elementary Economics, consisting of a brief study of Commercial Geography followed by Political Economy, as one of the most effective means of stimulating the interest of high school students in allied subjects and at the same time broadening their outlook upon the problems of life. This work and its results have made me enthusiastic as an advocate of such a course in high schools. Not long ago, a business man, quoting from a popular magazine, made a statement in the presence of a school man that the average high school student is unable to interpret a well written editorial on subjects of economic interest. The school man frankly admitted the fact, but amended the statement by the further 3 (Page 4) fact that the same criticism will apply equally well to the average adult. It is a serious question how the coming citizen shall be prepared to take his part as a member of the community in which he lives. The first part of the course mentioned above is too obvious to require any extended explanation It simply embodies a study of the physical basis for the production and distribution of the necessities of life. It accounts for the location of centers of industry and serves to acquaint the student with many phases of modern complex industrial life. The course in political economy, while more or less speculative and theoretical, is always illustrated by concrete examples of the principles under discussion, chosen either from the pupils’ own experience or from conditions so simple as to be easily understood. For example, the division of labor and the separation of employments can always be illustrated from some industry within the observation of every member of the class. In this simple and graphic way, the fundamental principles of production, transportation and distribution are discussed. Care is always taken not to get so far into theory as to become abstruse. By judicious management on the part of the teacher, every phase of the subject may be enriched with lively discussion and illustrations taken from daily papers and current magazines. It will be a matter of frequent surprise how well topics of current interest will fit into the discussions of any particular lesson. I have frequently found that news of paramount importance appearing in the daily press, was made clearer and of more vital interest by the lesson of the very day upon which such news was published. The resourceful teacher will never be embarrassed by a dearth of material. On the contrary, he will often find his most difficult problem to be the proper use of the material at hand without drifting beyond the legitimate field of discussion, His trouble will be an embarrassment of riches in material for discussion and illustration and he will often have to sit as moderator over impromptu debates of intense interest. It has been my observation, and that of my associate teachers, that no course in the high school curriculum is more effective 4 (Page 5) in broadening the students outlook on life and stimulating an interest in the activity of the world in which he lives. From day to day one may note his enlarging perspective and his ability to interpret historic, political, and economic facts. On the average, the student who takes this course seems better equipped for entering business or professional life than those who do not. The study of Elementary Economics is peculiarly well fitted to be correlated with history and government. The real student knows that nearly every phase of history or government has its origin in economic facts. This being true, why not initiate the student into a systematic study of the laws governing these economic facts? In this way, history will be presented to the mind as a living organism and not as a catalog of events without relation or interest to the student himself. He is enabled to link up the past with the present and perchance even in some measure forecast the future. He can interpret causes and motives underlying political activity and identify himself and his associates as factors in the active world about him. For the first part of this course, that of commercial geography, it will not be difficult, but highly important, to select a good text book. There are a number of excellent ones of almost equal merit. The number of text books on political economy suitable for high school use is not so large. We use Laughlin as an outline, with Burch and Nearing, Ely and Wicker and some heavier books as reference. But the fortunate phase of this part of the work is its adaptability to the general experience and observation as well as the cursory reading of the student. This renders the choice of a text book of relatively less importance than in almost any other subject. Any good text may be chosen as an outline, as the larger part of the work should consist of discussions within the grasp of youths of high school age. The local industrial survey, either by the class as a whole or by specially appointed committees, will always constitute a very Valuable phase of the work. We have found business managers of large industries uniformly courteous and helpful in this work. The carrying out of this method of work not only enlivens school activities, but is intensely practical in developing civic mindedness in the future voting citizen. The logical cure for our proverbial lack of public spirit is in some such scheme of education well followed up. 5 (Page 6) On the whole, I would repeat in conclusion, that in ply judgment, no subject in a high school course serves better to increase the pupil’s intelligence or helps him more in interpreting life in the modem world. More than this, as a companion study to history and government, it enriches and vivifies them and is an invaluable aid to the teacher who wishes to make these living, and vital subjects. MODEL OF AN EGYPTIAN HOUSE J. L. Kingsbury One of the ways of studying the life and customs of the people of the ancient world is by comparing or contrasting the houses in which they lived. For this purpose the class in Ancient Life has drawn plans for, and constructed a house typical of the homes of the more well-to-do classes of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. After a discussion of the different types of homes of the poor, the wealthy, and the nobility, and of the life in the family, the position of woman, and other similar topics, the class became so interested in the subject that it decided to undertake the construction and furnishing of a model of an Egyptian house. A committee was chosen to draw tentative plans which were then examined by the other students, and to each person was assigned some particular part of the house. For instance, three were to study and plan the details of the largest room in the house—the dining hall— beginning with the decoration of the walls and ending with the smallest article of regular furniture; others studied the arrangement of the kitchens and pantries, and the method of serving the food, and made the stoves, dishes, and other utensils necessary. Great care was taken to be as accurate as possible. The model was then built. Around a floor about forty eight inches by thirty six there is a wall five inches high which represents the outer wall of the establishment. Inside is a strip of lawn (represented by green crepe paper), about seven inches wide. Near the the front entrance there is an arbor, over which vines 6 (Page 7) PLAN OF AN EGYPTIAN HOUSE. have been constructed, tho there was no attempt to show the actual vines which would be found in Egypt itself. Then scattered thru the lawn at regular intervals are trees in earthen pots. A heroic attempt to reproduce a fish pond by a mirror bedded in the paper resulted rather unfortunately. In the plan the lawn is marked (1). Inside the lawn is the model of the house, thirty six inches by eighteen. Entrance is gained thru an inner court (2) which is decorated by four pillars. Three legged stools stand at either side of the entrance to the room marked (4) which is the main hallway into the house. On both sides of this room are two smaller ones (3,5) where the slaves stayed who guarded the entrance; These two rooms are furnished with a stool and low cot. Pillars furnish the only other relief to the monotony of the four heavy walls. From each of these three rooms there is a door, covered by a heavy portierre, decorated with a conventional design, and which leads into the dining room. Between two rows of four pillars 7 (Page 8) each stands a model of a table about two inches and a half long and about an inch wide. The master’s chair is at one side, facing towards the rear of the house, and the table is decorated with a number of dishes such as would be used in serving a dinner. Across each end of the table are arranged four smaller settles with dishes, and close to the walls are eight tall earthen jars, of nearly the same height as the table. These were used by the Egyptian for oil, wine, beer, and the like. Besides the table, with its furnishings, and the large heavy arm chair of the master, the dining room contained a smaller chair and several small three-legged stools, the diameter of the seats being less than a half inch. The rugs on the floor, the hangings at the doorways, and the wall decorations were all made in conventional Egyptian designs, the walls being decorated in yellow with a border of lotus blossoms. A staircase on the left gave access to the flat roof where the evening would doubtless be spent by the owner of a house of this type. On the wall opposite the staircase there was constructed a small window, over which, also there was hung a curtain. In the rear of the dining room, there are two doors leading into a long hall (8) across from which are the two kitchens (11-12). The only furniture in the hall is a three-legged stool and two small rage, made of grass. The kitchens have each a low, flat stove, made of clay, a work table with sundry dishes, and a couple of jars. The stoves were really simply hot plates, as they had a flat top an inch and a half by an inch large, while under it was simply a space where a fire knight be built. The models of these two stoves were the most difficult to construct. There is a small window in each kitchen. Next to this, and opening out into the hall is a tiny double pastry closet or pantry (10), in two compartments. They were used by the Egyptian to store foods. The two rooms were so small in the model that they were left unfurnished. At the end of the hall is a small anti-chamber (7) to the master’s bed room (9). The anti-room contains a model of a clothes chest, a stool, and rugs. The master’s bed room has a high posted bed, with some covers, the little flight of steps up which the Egyptian would customarily climb to his rest, and at the head of the bed one of those curious head rests on which he could lie without 8 (Page 9) danger of mussing his hair. A small stool with four legs completed the equipment of the room. The outstanding differences between an Egyptian house, and either a Greek or Roman, were apparent at a glance as soon as the house plan had been made. The model, built as carefully.as possible, with a view to faithful reproduction, contained but two windows — one in the dining hall, and another in the kitchens. To relieve the darkness of the interior, the walls were decorated in lively colors. Then, also, it was very apparent that the Egyptian gentleman spent some time out of doors in his garden, or on the roof, which is quite different from the habits of an Athenian. We have been aided in the work by pictures and text from such books as Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians; Erman — Life in Ancient Egypt; Perrot and Chipiez — History of Art in Ancient Egypt, especially volume two; Breasted — History of Egypt; and a number of other books. In constructing the large vases we copied pictures from a recent number of the National Geographic Magazine. USEFUL METALS IN THE ANCIENT WORLD J. L. Kingsbury Iron, lead, tin, copper and zinc were found principally in Spain, Gaul, Dalmatia, the valley of the Danube, the region east of the Tigris from the Zagros Mountains to the Caspian Sea. and Cyprus. It is the purpose of this article to discuss the sources of the supply of these metals for Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, Greece and the Roman Empire. The chief source of these metals for Egypt was the southern end of the peninsula of Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, Wadi Nasr, Serabit el Khadim, and at a mountain called At’eka which was doubtless one of the Sinai group. These mines were worked possibly as early as the reign of Snefru of the fourth Dynasty, or earlier (Breasted, Egypt, p. 48). The early expeditions were 9 (Page 10) simply troops sent out to extract a certain amount of copper and then return. They were subject to depredations on the part of the Beduins of the desert, as is indicated by the inscriptions of commanders who won victories over these nomads. It was not until the time of Amenemhat III in the Middle Kingdom that the mines began to be steadily worked. He constructed permanent wells and cisterns, barracks for the workmen, houses for the directing officials, and fortifications to protect the miners. The mines were then placed under regular foremen, and fixed amounts of copper were expected from each mine. The shafts were run horizontally into the mountains and were in the form of corridors, with pillars supporting the roofs. Erman (Life in Ancient Egypt p. 468) states that the stone huts for the workmen still stand, and also the small fort which served as protection from the Beduins. At the Wadi Maghara was a small temple to Hathor, the protecting divinity of all the miners at Sinai. At Serabit el Khadim mining was especially active during the Middle Kingdom, and numerous structures were erected there also under the Empire, especially at the time of Thutmose III. They were exhausted in the twentieth dynasty. Ramses III exploited the mines of At’eka, sending thither several galleys from the Red Sea ports, which returned with such enormous quantities of the metal that they were displayed before the palace of the Pharaoh so that the people might see them. Iron mines are found along the Red Sea east of the Nile, and doubtless furnished the Egyptians their supply of this metal, tho no trace has been discovered of ancient works. Painted inscriptions, however, and a few remains, indicate that the metal workers of Egypt used iron. Ethiopia also shipped some iron north. Where the Egyptians obtained their tin is not known. That quantities of it were used is attested by the large amount of bronze remains. The only sources of tin which we know were Britain, Spain, India, and possibly Asia Minor or the country around the Caspian Sea. Considerable amounts doubtless came in by indirect routes from India and across Arabia before the Phoenicians began the regular importation. It is hardly likely that English tin ever went to Egypt. Unless there was a supply of which we at present know nothing, therefore, most of the tin used by 10 (Page 11) Egyptians must have come from Spain. It is found still in Galicia and other parts of northern Spain, and Ezekiel claims that Tyre obtained tin from Tarshish. If newspapers are reliable, Prof. Garstang has found at Meroc the center of iron manufacturing. Turning next to Assyria and Babylonia, we find nearly every metal in large quantities in the Zagros Mountains to the East of the Tigris. Three or four days’ journey from Nineveh brought the traveler to a region in which iron, copper, lead, and silver were abundant and traces of the abandoned workings may yet be seen (Perrot and Chipiez, History of Art in Chaldea and Assyria, p. 124). It is even possible that at Warka and other towns which were her contemporaries, iron was used before it became known in Egypt. However that may be, large quantities of iron implements have been discovered. Thus at Khorsabad was unearthed a roomful of hooks and grappling irons, picks, mattocks, hammers, plough shares, etc. The iron was excellent. The reason is that they were nearer the sources of supply than most countries. Much of this mineral wealth is still there, and will doubtless be exploited if ever the land is freed of her present masters. Copper utensils were made largely for use in the kitchen. The most skilful artizans were those of Nineveh. Babylon had considerable trade in exporting wares of this sort. It was doubtless due to their superior steel swords and defensive armor that the Assyrians proved so formidable to their enemies in battle. Turning next to Asia Minor, we find there were iron miners in the vicinity of Mt. Ida before the time of Strabo (10 Strabo 3:22), and more in the country of the Chalybes. The latter had been known as early as the days of Homer, being mentioned in the Catalogue of Ships. In this vicinity had been established some of the earliest colonies of Miletus. A considerable amount of iron was taken from here to Athens in the days of the Empire. Exactly what were the regions where Rhodes got the iron ore she used in the manufacturing establishments she had (14 Strabo 1:5), is a matter of dispute. The richest copper region, unless Sinai be excepted, in the east was the island of Cyprus, a fact which the Phoenicians early discovered. Considerable copper was exported from Cyprus to 11 (Page 12) Egypt as well as to Tyre and Sidon. So rich were these mines that exports continued down far into the time of the Roman Empire, and our very name for copper is a corruption of the name give the island by the ancients. Tamassus was the principle port of shipment. The most important centers of copper mining known to the Greeks of the fourth century were Chalcis and Eretria in Euboea, and the towns in Chalcidice established very largely by the cities just mentioned. These seem to have been pretty nearly exhausted by Strabo’s time. The supply of iron used by them may have come, in part? from the towns established by Corinth on the east shores of the Adriatic, near the Dalmatian iron fields. More, probably, came tho rather indirectly, from the Danube in the region of Styria, This became in the days of the Roman Empire an important source of supply. There were two sources of iron ore supply very close to the peninsula of Italy. One of these was Noreia, famous both for her gold and iron ore deposits, which; doubtless furnished part of the motive for the extension of the Republic to the Alps, in the days between the first and the second Punic War. Then on the island of Elba there were some iron mines, and Puteoli became the center of one of the largest wholesale exporting businesses in the Ancient World. Strabo alleges that the Argonauts visited the place and named its chief port of shipment. Finally, copper also was found in considerable quantities in Bruttium, where Strabo (II, VI 1—) found it around Temessa, tho in his time the mines had been exhausted. Sardinia was very rich in mineral deposits, especially lead, iron, and copper. It was this that caused the Carthaginians to obtain control of the island, or at any rate the coast. Prisoners of the nation worked these mines, and the raw and finished product were both exported from a well protected harbor on the south side. The natives also learned to make rude products from the raw metal. Sardinia had some zinc as well. It was this wealth that probably led the Romans to acquire the island between the first and second Punic Wars. 12 (Page 13) But it was Spain that furnished the greatest abundance of metal to the Roman world. Strabo mentions Turditania as the richest district. In fact, the whole country of the Iberians was full of minerals. It is seldom that one small section is so rich in so many kinds of resources. His description of the district is very enthusiastic. “Turditania, however, and the surrounding districts surpass so entirely in all these respects, that however you may wish, words cannot convey their excellence. Gold, silver, copper and iron in equal amounts and of very similar quality not having been hitherto discovered in any other part of the world. Copper is obtained in remarkable purity, tin is dug extensively both in the land of the Turditanians and by the tribes in their rear”. The land of the Aetabri (the northern part of Turditania) was powdered with both silver and tin. At Castalerone and elsewhere there were lead mines. In the vicinity of Tarragona on the eastern side fine steel was manufactured, in the days of Nero being chilled in the cold mountain streams which form the headwaters of the Tagus. Thus in addition to the gold and silver of the peninsula, and to the productive river valleys of which the Guadalquivir was but one, Spain furnished an abundance of the metals used in the more ordinary manufactureng enterprises of the ancient world. Small wonder that at the close of the first war between Rome and Carthage the father of Hannibal went to Spain to create a new source of Punic power and wealth, or that Spain became one of the choicest portions of the Roman dominions with the defeat of the greatest of that great Barca family at Zama. Beyond the Pyrrhenees, there were extensive deposits of iron ore along the Loire in Gaul, which were the foundation of a flourishing iron manufacturing business in the first three centuries after Christ. Iron was also obtained from England, tho in small quantities, probably. Strabo fails to mention tin, but this metal was undoubtedly obtained by the Phoenicians. They declared that it came from some islands now located as the Scilly Islands, but this was probably a deliberate falsehead, intended to deceive any who might attempt to compete with them for the supply. 13 (Page 14) THE PROBLEM METHOD OF TEACHING HISTORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL BYRON T. JOHNSON Why do we teach history in the high school? The study, of history in secondary schools, it seems to me, should be regarded as having a threefold function. First, the intrinsic function of history is to explain and interpret institutions of the present by studying institutions of the past. For the purpose of illustration let us look into England’s political history. Here we find a most remarkable example of a people who thru centuries of experiment and conscious effort have developed and maintained a free government. When we see the conditions under which the principle of control of national finances by popular representatives was established, the modem catchphrase, “no taxation without representation”, has a new and vital meaning to us. We see that modem democratic institutions have not merely happened but have been developed by a long process of experimentation, and have been retained because they have been found expedient. Secondly, the study of history has an extrinsic or secondary value in imparting to the high school pupil valuable standards of social and civic duties. In the study of American and English history we may find expressions of the highest ideals of the Anglo-Saxon people. I do not believe that the teacher should select a particular moral precept, as for instance, “it is wrong to accept bribes”, and then use a section of English or American history to show why it is wrong to accept bribes. If history is properly taught the student will see for himself that it is wrong to accept bribes. Thirdly, the study of history, when properly directed, offers the adolescent an excellent opportunity to exercise and develop the power of logical thought. To accomplish this purpose the student must be led to see that history is a study of the ways in which people of the past have met every day problems of actual life. In the class work the teacher should not be content with a 14 (Page 15) mere rehearsal of the facts and events of a particular period of history. Rather questions should be asked which will stimulate the pupil to think of reasons for the political, social, and economic changes of which he reads. Life is a process of solving problems. Man forms purposes and attempts to realize them. These purposes or ideals are conditioned by experience. The formation of purposes is not merely an individual-psychic process. The ideals of the individual man are in part affected by his inborn tendencies and in part by the material and spiritual stimuli to which he is subject. When the individual attempts to realize one of his purposes his action is modified, or dominated by the same groups of conditions which affected the formation of his purpose. When the individual is thus checked in the realization of his purpose he may be said to have a problem. The peculiar problem of the laboring man is to secure employment with sufficient remuneration to enable him to provide for the material and spiritual needs of his family. Industrial changes have placed the laborer at a distinct disadvantage in the process of bargaining with his employer for wages. The laborer then, has been confronted with a new problem. In the collective attempt of laboring men to solve this problem labor organizations have been formed. This is a problem of the present and is relatively easy for the student to see and appreciate. People in the past were confronted with problems and attempted to solve them just as people are doing today. The problem method in the study of history consists in leading the student to see the problems which confronted people in the past and to see how these people tried to solve their problems. Following are some typical historical problems: 1. To see how the reign of Charlemagne influenced the progress of civilization in western Europe. 2. To see how William the Conqueror established his position as a strong monarch in England. 3. To see how the French Revolution checked political and social reform in England. 4. To see the conditions which favored the development of democratic government in New England. 15 (Page 16) I shall not attempt to suggest any hard and fast rules for conducting a recitation in history, The method must necessarily be modified to suit varying conditions. I believe however that two principles are fundamental, viz., the time devoted to a rehearsal of historical facts should be reduced to the lowest practical minimum, and the major portion of the class period, say three fourths, should be devoted to serious study of historical problems. History is not merely a study of problems, it is a study of connected problems. Man’s new institutions have been evolved out of old institutions. It seems to me therefore that there should be some logical connection between the problem of one day’s lesson and that of the next. The teacher may show this connection by beginning the recitation with a series of questions, not many, say three or four, based upon the discussion of the problem of the previous lesson. These questions should be short and snappy and the teacher should insist upon quick response by the pupils. Also the questions should be so worded as to tax the student’s reasoning power rather than his memory. The student should be stimulated to form generalizations from the discussion of the preceding class period. The function of the first ten or fifteen minutes of the recitation should be to lead the students to see the problem of the day’s lesson. Some teachers do this by stating the problem at the outset and writing it on the blackboard. I object to this plan because it relieves the student of much of the mental exercise incident to the discovery of the problem. The review questions if properly directed will prepare the students for the new problem. Now the teacher should proceed with a short series of questions based upon the advanced reading in the text and references. These questions should be so directed that the students may see the problem as a result of their own thought and study. Since there are usually several problems involved in the subject matter of an assignment, the teacher should choose those which seem most fundamental and by suggestive questions direct the class discussion along the proper channels. When the students have recognized the problem, they are ready to begin the real work of the class period. They are now 16 (Page 17) ready to develop the problem. At this point a concise statement of the problem should be written on the blackboard in order that it may be kept constantly before the minds of the pupils. Then the teacher should by questioning direct the class in organizing the subject matter of the lesson with reference to the central theme or problem. The following lesson plan, based upon Muzzey’s American History, is submitted as a suggestion as to a method by which high school students may be aided in appreciating some of the fundamental things of history. It may appear to the reader that the work outlined below is too much for one class period of fifty minutes. Where convenient the work should be outlined with reference to the length of the class period, but this consideration should not be permitted to interfere with the unity and co-relation of the subject matter. I. Assignment. Topic: Jeffersonian Democracy and the Louisiana Purchase. Text, Muzzey, American History, pp. 205-213. Reference, Johnson, Union and Democracy, pp. 123-159. II. Recitation. A. On the class discussion of the previous day,— Problem: To trace the political conditions which led to the fall of the Federalists from power and the triumph of men and principles of the Revolution in 1800. 1. Show how political conditions were unfavorable to the Federalists during Adams’s administration. a. The violent opposition of the Republican press tended to crystalize the political opinions of the Republicans. 17 (Page 18) b. The treaty with France (1800) aroused the opposition of the extreme Federalists who desired war. c. Unwise legislation like the Alien and Sedition Acts caused a reaction of popular feeling against the Federalist party. d. The Federalists were not in sympathy with the frontier democracy. e. Efficient Republican organizations, especially in New York and New England, aided in the defeat of the Federalists in 1800. B. On advanced reading. 1. Give a brief statement of Jefferson’s ideals of national government. a. He believed in simplicity of ceremony. b. He believed there should be as little government as possible and that controlled by the people. c. He favored a policy of rigid economy in national expenditures. 2. Characterize Jefferson’s foreign policy. a. He hoped to solve problems of foreign relations by appealing to the self interest of those nations concerned. 3. How were the principles of Jeffersonian Democracy like those of the Revolutionary period? a. The principles of Jeffersonian Democracy in general, were opposed to strong central government. 18 (Page 19) 4. State two ways in which Jefferson departed from these principles. a. By the purchase of Louisiana. b. By disciplining the Barbary Pirates. 5. What then is the chief problem of Jefferson’s two administrations? a. To see how conditions and events favored a modification of Jefferson’s negative policies of government along nationalistic lines. III. Development of the Problem. Problem: To see how conditions and events favored a modification of Jefferson’s negative policies of government along nationalistic lines. 1. Show that the election of 1800 meant a a return to men and principles of the Revolution. a. Jefferson, himself a planter, represented the interests of the agricultural classes which composed a majority of the population. (1) His ideals of democracy and as little government as possible were typical of the years of the Revolution. b. Many of the states, as Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts chose Revolutionary leaders as governors. c. The Republicans had a majority in both houses of the new Congress. 2. Illustrate the negative character of the reforms under Jefferson. a. Jefferson abandoned the official etiquette drawn up by Hamilton in favor of forms more suited to his simple tastes. 19 (Page 20) b. The Federalist practice of having the two houses of Congress send the President formal addresses at their assembling, and of his replying, was done away with. c. The Judiciary Act of 1801, passed to accommodate some of Adams's late appointments, was repealed on the ground that it involved unnecessary expense. d. An attempt was made to remove some of the Federalist judges by impeachment but after one such removal this policy was abandoned. e. The Excise Law was repealed as a part of the policy of reducing taxes. f. The Bankruptcy Act was repealed. g. An Act was passed reducing the residence requirement for naturalization from fourteen to five years. h. As a part of the policy of reducing the governments expenditures, the army and navy were reduced in strength. i. Gallatin, the efficient Secretary of the Treasury, began a program of reducing the national debt in which he was aided by the increase in customs duties. 3. Why did Jefferson decide to purchase Louisiana? a. With the transfer of Louisiana to France the control of the Mississippi river passed into the hands of a strong European nation, thus endangering the commercial interests of the West. 20 (Page 21) 4. How did the purchase of Louisiana represent a departure from Republican principles? a. It was a violation of the Republican principle of strict construction of the Constitution, for the Constitution does not specifically authorize the President or Congress to purchase additional territory. b. By acquiring Louisiana in order to promote American agricultural and commercial interests, Jefferson appropriated one of Hamilton’s cardinal principles, viz., national aid to industries. 5. Show how the purchase of Louisiana served as an influence in favor of strong national government. a. By doubling the area of the United States and by opening up vast resources in farming land and mineral wealth, room was provided for our expanding population. b. By opening the Mississippi to western commerce, the bond of union between the West and the national government was strengthened. c. The exploring expedition sent out under Lewis and Clark (1804-1806) enlightened the American people as to the extent and resources of the terriitory acquired. 6. How did the war with the Barbary Pirates represent a further modification of Republican principles? 21 (Page 22) a. It was a departure from the policy of peaceful coercion. b. It necessitated a slight strengthening of the navy, and revived a popular desire for naval preparedness. 7. How did the reduction of the national debt and the increase of revenue from customs duties affect Jefferson’s ideas of the purpose of the national government? a. During his second administration Jefferson began to entertain plans of national aid to internal improvements and education, and favored a constitutional amendment enabling such legislation. 8. Note the political character of Burr’s trial for treason. IV. Assignment for the Next Lesson. A. Topic: Neutral Trade and Impressment. Text, Muzzey, American History, pp. 213-219. Reference, Johnson, Union and Democracy, pp. 179-210. B. Suggestions for Preparation of the Lesson. 1. Read the assignments carefully noting the main problems. 2. What is the general character of the political problems of Jefferson’s last administration and of Madison’s first administration? 3. Note the weakness of Jefferson’s foreign policy in practice. 4. Note the influence of the New Republican leaders from the South and West. 22 (Page 23) THE HISTORICAL MUSEUM — HOW TO COLLECT AND USE ONE E. M. VIOLETTE History is a book study. Without history texts and other works of historical reference there could be no study of the subject at least in our schools. Books are indispensable tools to the student of history from the third or the fourth grade up. We have not fully solved the problem of how to prepare history text books and books of reference suitable to the students in their several grades and stages of advancement; but some encouraging progress has been made along this line in the last fifteen years, and the prospects seem to be good for further advance in the near future. But there is need of other material than books in the study of history. Maps and charts have long been used as almost equally indispensable as books in the pursuit of certain forms of history at least, and lantern slides and motion pictures have recently been called in to make their contribution to a more adequate understanding of the subject. Moreover in some educational institutions historical museums are being formed and are being used as effective aids in the study of history, but as yet a good start in this direction had scarcely been made. For many years many educational institutions have maintained natural science museums and even art museums; but it is only recently that historical museums as workable agencies in the study of history in our schools and colleges, have been deemed feasible. Their value is not yet thoroly appreciated, and even when it is admitted in a general way that they would be helpful, history teachers have been slow in making the effort to create them in their schools. This slowness on the part of the teachers has been due to the fact that they have not been able to see how to proceed in the matter and because they are not certain as to the way historical museums can be used after created. The purpose of this article is to suggest how some sort of a workable historical museum can be established in town and village schools and how it should be used. These two topics will run into each other in the account that follows, since, as will be 23 (Page 24) seen, the manner in which the museum will be used will determine somewhat the method of procedure in building it up. An historical museum for school purposes should consist of those things that illustrate the manners and customs of the people in times past or are souvenirs or remembrances of important historical events. It should not be made-up of mere curiosities. Each exhibit should have a certain historical value. For example a piece of the upholstering in the carriage in which Daniel Webster once rode, a chip off of Plymouth Rock (granting that it is a genuine chip from the genuine rock), or a cane cut from a tree at Mt. Vernon, are mere curiosities and are without any historical value whatsoever. Considerable care needs to be exercised on the part of those who are gathering material for a museum so that improper objects are not allowed to find a place in it. More will be said upon this matter later. Museum exhibits may be acquired by purchase, loan or gift. Not many schools can afford to spend very much money in the purchase of exhibits for an historical museum. Indeed it is not necessary that much money be expended in building up a museum. One of the most serviceable museums in the middle west is the one at the De Kalb (Ill.) Normal School. It contains over 2000 exhibits in addition to a. collection of Indian relics of about 2000 pieces, and yet not more than $10 was spent in purchasing exhibits for this excellent museum; In the building of the museum in the Kirksville State Normal School, most of the exhibits have been loaned or given by friends of the institution. Aside from the collection of Indian relics, of nearly 1000 pieces which was purchased for a very reasonable sum, the only other purchases were a few Babylonian clay tablets and early Palestinian lamps, and certain historical models and replicas which illustrate ancient and medieval history and which were made in Germany by a firm making a specialty of that sort of work. A very effective historical museum may therefore be built up without making extensive purchases. From the community in which the school is located there may be gathered a great many things as loans or gifts which when assembled and properly arranged will assist very materially in illustrating some of the manners and customs of the past. It may be that most, if not all, 24 (Page 25) of the things that may be thus gathered in from a given community will illustrate the recent instead of the remote past. But even so, it may be observed that it is just as important to understand some of the customs of our grandparents or great grandparents that have became more or less obsolete, as it is to understand some of the habits and customs of the Egyptian Pharaohs or the Romans or the medieval feudal lords. Let us see what might be secured in a town of at least 500 and the surrounding vicinity in northeast Missouri for a school museum if the people of the community are properly interested in the matter. The chances are a spinning wheel or two would be found without very much difficulty. Likewise a doth loom or a carpet loom, old time agricultural implements, old fashioned clothing, cooking utensils and household furniture, out of date weapons and Indian relics will likely be found. Altho this part of the state was not settled as soon as the counties along the Missouri river and the Mississippi river south of St. Louis, there remain in many communities in northeast Missouri many of the articles above mentioned that were used by the pioneers and that may often be had for asking. In many homes all over this country there are to be found a great many things that have come down from pioneer times that are likely to be destroyed in a very short while if something is not done in each community to preserve them. Many a spinning wheel or loom that would be of great interest to students now in school has been allowed to fall into decay or has been broken up to get it out of the way. This is true also of other things that are of historical value. One can not blame people for getting rid of things that have become useless. But some thing should be done in every community to preserve enough of those things that represent and illustrate an earlier period of our civilization and that are disappearing very rapidly. As long as these objects of historical interest remain scattered thruout the community, they often have little or no value to the people who possess them and none to the community as a whole. But when they are assembled in a historical museum and properly classified and arranged, they acquire a certain dynamic value that is very apparent when used in connection with the study of history. 25 (Page 26) One should know something of the history of the community when he starts out to gather from the people exhibits for a historical museum. He will then have some idea as to what to look for and to whom to go to get it. For example if one lives in a community that has always been agricultural, the things he will likely find in it will pertain to the life of farmers. On the other hand if the community has been given to some other occupation, there would likely be little in it illustrating agricultural life. But there are many surprises in store for the one who makes a diligent search in his community for historical relics, and oftentimes things will be unearthed that few had dreamed of being in the place. For example there have been loaned to the museum at Kirksville by citizens of the town pewter spoon moulds that were used in Connecticut in colonial times; a Swiss lieutenant’s epaulets and sword, and a set of Virginia Almanacs for 1791 to 1794. Similar finds will likely be made by every one who scours his community for museum material. It may sometimes happen that objects of historical interest are really valued by those who possess them either for their historical qualities or for the associations connected with them, as we have found to be the case several times in Kirksville, and cannot therefore be secured as loans or gifts to the museum. The owners may however be willing to lend them occasionally for use in the class room, and a list of such objects should be made so they may be borrowed from time to time as need for them arises. It is obvious that the greater the interest aroused in the community, the greater the success in collecting the material for a museum. Enthusiasm on the part of the teacher is of course the first essential. A museum does not come into existence just of itself. Some one must give a good deal of attention to the work and must keep the matter before the people if any marked success is to be had. Circulars, news items or advertisements in the local newspapers and personal solicitations may all be resorted to. Announcements should be made from time to time to the students in school, especially to those in the history classes. At the De Kalb Normal School a Christmas tree was used as one means of getting museum exhibits, and all the students were invited to bring something that would be suitable for the museum and put it on 26 (Page 27) the tree. The response to this appeal was very satisfactory indeed. One may expect that many freakish and unsuitable things will be brought in from time to time by people who may be interested in the project. There will be times when some of these things, ought to be declined when they are offered. But generally everything should be received as offered and those articles that have little or no historical value should be stored away, or after a while discarded if they are of no further use to those who have contributed them. Due care should be exercised so as to prevent the accumulation of mere curiosities. Such things are so much junk as far as their use in connection with school work is concerned, and are therefore to be avoided as much as possible. While most of the exhibits that are thus accumulated will be more or less unrelated to one another, there should be some definite effort to get what might be called sets of related objects that will illustrate a given subject in history. For example much of the history of the nineteenth century turns upon the industrial revolution that began in the latter part of the eighteenth century. To understand that revolution it is necessary to study some of the inventions that produced and developed it. It is not possible to bring into an ordinary historical museum things that will illustrate many of these inventions, but as a usual thing it will not be very difficult to get things that pertain to spinning and weaving. Every historical museum should contain therefore a set of wool cards, a large and a small spinning wheel, a reel, a flax breaker, a flax hackle arid a lot of raw wool, and every effort should be made to secure them. When therefore the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century is taken up for study, a demonstration of spinning can be made right in the class with these different pieces of apparatus. Some wool should be combed or carded and then spun. It is not necessary to do very much of this or to do it in a very finished way. But if the underlying principles in the processes of carding and spinning by hand are made clear to the students, then it will be very easy for them to appreciate the improvements that have been made in the machinery used in spinning down to the present time, It would be very advantageous if a few lantern slides could be made of the spinning jenny and the later spinning machines, so that these could be shown in connection with the demonstration with the cards and the spinning wheel. 27 (Page 28) Moreover if the museum includes a model of a distaff and a spindle, it could be shown how spinning was done before the wheel was invented, and thus a complete survey could be made very quickly and very effectively of the history of spinning from earliest times to the present. Fortunately the museum at Kirksville contains all the apparatus mentioned in this paragraph, and every time a class takes up the industrial revolution of the eighteenth century, the history of spinning is outlined in some such way as has just been described. It will be a little difficult to bring into a museum many things that will illustrate weaving and its historical development. Looms are not so easily procured as spinning wheels. Moreover they are very bulky. Simple models of looms however can be easily made, and by these means the principle underlying the processes of weaving can be demonstrated. If there should happen to be a loom in the community that is still in use for making rugs or rag carpets, the class might well go to see it in operation some day. Lantern slides showing the later developments of the weaving industry could also be used in connection with this study. The museum at Kirksville contains exhibits which enable us to give in outline an illustrated account of printing from the days of Gutenberg in the fifteenth century to the present time. The equipment consists of a model of the press used by Gutenberg himself; an old Washington press which represents some of the first improvements over the one used by Gutenberg; a lot of metal type of both the monotype and the linotype styles; a semi-circular type plate which was used by the St. Louis Republic in printing the front page of its issue of January 30, 1914 and the papier mache mould from which this plate was made Besides these things we have a lot of slides showing the different types of printing presses that have been made since the Washington press was made, including one of the latest presses built by the Hoe Printing Press Co. When therefore a class in Medieval and Modem History comes to the invention of printing by moveable type, advantage is taken of the opportunity to make a brief study of the history of printing from early times to the present. The model of Gutenberg’s press and the Washington press which are in our museum are therefore studied. The class then makes a trip to the printing offices down town and observes the different 28 (Page 29) kinds of printing presses in them, On this trip the class also observes the linotype and the monotype machines at work, and contrasts these new methods of setting type with the old way of “picking” it from the case. The next time the class meets after this trip has been made, the semi-circular plate of the Republic and the papier mache mould are studied, and then the slides showing the kinds of presses that use this sort of a type plate are exhibited and explained. A certain amount of reading along these lines is assigned and by the time the subject has been finished, the class has had a good opportunity to cover the history of printing from earliest times to the present in such a way as to leave very definite and clear impressions on the minds of the students as to the historical development of the subject. It is not likely that many schools would be able to duplicate the collection that we happen to have on printing in our museum at Kirksville, but there are few schools that could not get a set of cards and a spinning wheel to illustrate the process of spinning. If these things can not be found in the community, they can be bought of certain mail order firms such as Montgomery Ward and Co. of Chicago very cheaply. It would seem as tho most schools would be able to place in their museums exhibits that would illustrate the historical development of other topics similar to those that have been mentioned. Collections illustrating the making of fire, illumination, cooking, dress or costume might be easily secured. For example a firemaking stick, a flint and steel, and sulphur matches will serve to show some of the most important ways of making fire that have been used in different ages of the world. A tallow dip, a candle and a candle stick, a coal oil lamp and an electric bulb will, if placed side by Side, suggest the history of illumination. A collection of cooking utensils of different periods will open up certain phases of home life, as will also samples of footwear and of clothing of different peoples and periods. Some museums have made very good use bf dolls in representing the costumes of different peoples or the changes in style of a given people from time to time. From these statements it will no doubt be seen that the value of a museum is greatly enhanced if it contains collections of exhibits that are related and that exemplify the development of certain topics in history. 29 (Page 30) It is not always possible to draw the line between what should go into the museum and what should go into the library. Possibly everything in book form should go into the latter. But sometimes certain books, especially if they are old, possess a character that would entitle them to a place in the museum. This would be true if the books represent different styles of printing or binding. Under such conditions their contents would not be of much concern. But recently we have tried to get for our museum all the old text books that were in use in schools and colleges twenty five years or more ago. Such books might well go into the library, but it seemed advantageous at the time to put them in the museum. Some of the books that have been brought in are proving to be of great educational value to classes of several different departments. Old newspapers, especially if they are single issues and contain certain historical information of noteworthy character, such as the death of Washington and the assassination of Lincoln, are valuable exhibits in a museum. Moreover samples of newspapers from different periods of time enable one to notice the changes that have taken place in the form and to a certain extent the content of the newspaper. While books and newspapers may properly belong to the library under almost all circumstances, the museum may be considered the proper depository for legal documents, posters and a great variety of other printed matter which illustrate certain customs and practices. Account books, hand bills giving price lists, posters and other material used in political campaigns, and other public movements might well be sought for and put in the museum. The museum is the place for those things that illustrate primarily the past that is more or less remote. Very seldom are things found in it that are in present day use, except as they may be parts of collections illustrating the historical development of a given topic. But the difficulty that teachers experience in gathering up things that have come down from the past, ought to arouse them to the necessity of preserving things that illustrate the present and of leaving them in the museum for the benefit of those who come after them. Of course it would not be advisable to put a sample of every thing in use today in a museum even if that were possible. Judg- 30 (Page 31) ment needs to be exercised in selecting those things that illustrate the present that should be preserved. An example or two may be given here to make this point clear. It would seem that a collection of the various kinds of campaign material used during presidential campaigns should be made while each campaign is going on. We are only four years removed from the last campaign, but any one who would set out to make a collection of the badges, the buttons, the posters, the circulars and the like that were used then would find it a rather difficult task. He would find it much more difficult if he should try it ten years from now, and after a while longer, an impossibility. Material of this sort becomes fugitive very quickly and in most cases it is destroyed in a short time after use is made of it. If it is to be preserved, it must be gathered while it is being used. The value of such material is seem with the passing years. Suppose we had a collection of the material used in campaigns of 1840, 1860, 1876 and 1896, to mention no others. How interesting they would be, and how instructive on the methods employed by the different political parties to stir up the political feelings of the people. Just as these would be of interest to us now, so would those of the forthcoming campaign be of interest to the people 25 years or more from now. This should be suggestive to those who are interested in museum work that it would be well to be active during the next few months so that by the end of the forthcoming presidential campaign there will be a representative collection of the material used in it. The present war offers another example along this line. The curators of museums and the librarians in this country have a great opportunity before them, notwithstanding the fact that the war is up to the present confined to the eastern hemisphere. So many nations are engaged in it, that there are people in nearly every town in this country who have friends and relatives living in the warring countries. If these people are properly interested, they may be able to get from their European friends or relatives many mementoes of the war such as posters, post cards, letters from soldiers, and the like. Moreover our newspapers are rich in pictures and cartoons, and scrap books or files of such might be made and deposited in the museum or library. It will reflect very seriously upon the history teachers of this country if they do 31 (Page 32) not avail themselves of the present opportunities to amass a great deal of material bearing upon this greatest of all wars and place it in either museums or libraries. In addition to material of the sort just described in connection with presidential campaigns and the present war, there is another kind illustrative of the present that might well be taken care of in our museums. All around us today in the industrial and the social world are certain things that are going out of use or are being modified so that only the most improved style or pattern is being used. Collections of such things should be made in a limited way at least. Take the method of illumination for instance. We have entered upon a period when the electric light is rapidly superseding all other means of illumination. It was not so long ago when the coal oil lamp was almost universally used, having superseded the tallow candle. So rapidly is the electric fight taking the place of the coal oil lamp, that there are some communities where the children have never seen a coal oil lamp in actual use. To them such a thing is an object of real interest. There is no likelihood of the coal oil lamp passing out of use in the small towns and rural communities tomorrow, but who is willing to say that it will not be completely superseded in a very short time even in the country? There is no need of putting coal oil lamps in school museums in small towns as yet, but one can see from what has been said that there is occasion for having them in museums in some communities already. This illustration is cited because it is suggestive of the changes that are going on around us all the time and of the advisability of securing samples of those things that are going out of use before thay get too scarce. Something should be said about the arrangement of the exhibits in a museum and the manner of labelling them. Much of the value of a good collection is destroyed by keeping it a haphazard way. To arrange the exhibits in proper fashion requires adequate space and in most instances special casing. Moreover every article should be labelled and a brief explanation concerning it typewritten on the label or card. If this is done, the casual visitor will be able to derive some benefit from the museum as well as the classes that make use of it under faculty direction. This is however too big a subject to go into at this time. Something more definite may be said upon it in a later bulletin. 32 (Back Cover)